Comparative Analysis of Smart and Traditional Evacuation Strategies in Underground Mines Utilizing Virtual Reality Simulations

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Comparative Analysis of Smart and Traditional Evacuation Strategies in Underground Mines Utilizing Virtual Reality Simulations

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4320209/v1

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Underground mining operations inherently involve significant risks, such as the collapse of surrounding rock or fires. While infrequent, the potentially catastrophic nature of these events highlights the essential need for swift and secure evacuation procedures, ensuring the safety and survival of mineworkers in such situations. The traditional static evacuation strategy, relying on exit signs or guidance markers, may become blocked or barely discernible in low-visibility circumstances resulting from smoke or dust. This paper investigates the feasibility of integrating smart evacuation technology into underground mine operations by examining its effectiveness compared to traditional practices. This procedure involves real-time evacuation guidance of individuals along optimized paths to egress, effectively avoiding danger zones. A virtual simulation environment was built based on the actual layout of a gold mine in Nevada. In this instance, the simulation process involved evacuating a group of participants employing both traditional practices and smart evacuation strategies equipped with live assistance. The findings revealed a notable contrast in the effectiveness of the total evacuation duration between the traditional and smart evacuation strategies. The smart method achieved the most substantial decrease in total evacuation time, almost a 40% reduction. Additionally, 83% of participants expressed a preference for the smart evacuation strategies compared to the traditional practices, with all participants agreeing that the smart evacuation strategy has the potential to improve mine safety.

Fire Emergency

Wayfinding

Smart Evacuation Simulation

Virtual Reality (VR)

Underground Mining

Essential mineral reserves like copper, platinum, and gold are commonly excavated from the earth to sustain modern human society. Among the various mining methods, underground mining stands out as one of the common methods for obtaining these resources, characterized by excavated drift networks within the ground. Chile's El Teniente, one of the largest underground mine globally, boasts an extensive drift network spanning 1900 miles (Jamasmie, 2015). Excavating rock underground poses inherent risks that may prompt mine evacuations when incidents arise. In such emergencies, every minute is crucial for miners' health and survival. Typically, the primary evacuation destination is the mine's main entryway, like a shaft or ramp. Refuge chambers, if available, provide temporary safe locations until the arrival of the rescue team, who then facilitate the transportation of individuals to the surface. According to data from the MSHA database, there were 127 recorded fires in underground metal/nonmetal mines and 122 recorded fires in the United States' underground coal mines between 2000 and 2021 (National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - NIOSH, 2022). Despite the implementation of safety measures mandated by mine safety laws, such as the 2006 MINER Act, a study examining escape plans for underground coal mines noted a deficiency in literature concerning contemporary mining procedures and the impacts of the MINER Act (Alexander et al., 2010). Additionally, the research highlights the absence of US-based studies or technology dissemination within the broader US mine emergency response framework, contrasting with other industries and mining methodologies abroad.

Numerous endeavors have investigated intelligent evacuation guidance systems across various settings, including highway tunnels, occupational buildings, and other domains, as demonstrated by the works of Inoue et al. (Inoue et al., 2008), Chen (C.-Y. Chen, 2009), Kobes et al. (Kobes et al., 2010), Ahn and Han (Ahn & Han, 2011), Ronchi et al. (Ronchi et al., 2015a), Bernardes et al. (Bernardes et al., 2015), Cosma et al. (Cosma et al., 2016a), Ronchi et al. (Ronchi et al., 2016), Galea et al. (Galea et al., 2017), Majumder et al. (Majumder et al., 2017), Lujak et al. (Lujak et al., 2017), Arias et al. (Arias, La Mendola, et al., 2019), and Damaševičius et al. (Damaševičius et al., 2023). Despite notable advancements in these sectors, the integration of smart evacuation systems within the mining industry remains largely unexplored. Present regulations in mining primarily rely on conventional route marking for evacuation procedures in underground non-coal mines, as mandated by law (30 CFR § 57.11051 - Escape Routes, 1985). Although a few studies, such as those by Jalali and Noroozi (2009), Barker-Read and Li (1989), Rehman et al. (2019), and Jha et al. (Jha et al., 2022), have initiated exploration into smart evacuation strategies in underground mining settings, comprehensive implementation has yet to materialize.

An effective smart evacuation strategy for underground mining operations necessitates continuous monitoring of individuals' whereabouts within the mine using advanced technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT). This involves the deployment of devices such as beacons, Wi-Fi signal strength indicators, and Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) tags. Additionally, environmental surveillance is crucial for detecting hazards and preventing risks, employing tools such as smoke detectors, thermometers, and a range of sensors. Wireless communication systems, particularly wireless mesh networks, are resilient in harsh mining conditions, ensuring functionality even in the event of individual node failures (Carrier, 2018; Strickland, 2008). Furthermore, various strategies, such as smart exit signs with adaptable direction indicators or personal devices like smartwatches or smartphones can aid in guiding individuals through the mine. These devices allow for customization of localization and navigation for each occupant, enhancing overall safety and efficiency.

Several studies have scrutinized the conventional static evacuation strategy within the mining sector. Brenkley et al. (1999) pointed out challenges associated with maintaining reflective signs and symbols, their reduced visibility in adverse conditions, and the limited attention from miners. Martell et al. (Martell et al., 2020) similarly observed that exit route signs may become significantly less conspicuous in situations of poor visibility. Furthermore, Chen et al. (J. Chen et al., 2018) and Jeon et al. (Jeon et al., 2011) illustrated those conditions of low visibility, such as those induced by smoke, can prolong evacuation durations. It is imperative to give due consideration to the design and placement of exit signs or wayfinding systems, as these aspects can impact evacuation efficiency.

Virtual Reality (VR) has been widely utilized across diverse domains for its capacity to generate computer-simulated three-dimensional environments using techniques like photogrammetry and point cloud generation (Gaab, 2019; Kamran-Pishhesari et al., 2024; Valencia et al., 2024). R has demonstrated its effectiveness in assessing emergency evacuation behavior (Kinateder et al., 2014; Kinateder & Warren, 2016; Ronchi et al., 2015b) and enhancing wayfinding systems in highway tunnels (Arias, Wahlqvist, et al., 2019; Cosma et al., 2016b; Ronchi et al., 2015b). Among recent VR technologies, CAVE and 360° screens incorporate a Head-Mounted Display (HMD) equipped with separate displays for each eye, providing users with an expansive 200° field of vision (Varjo Co., 2023). In the mining sector, numerous research endeavors have investigated VR applications, including safety and hazard training (Marsh et al., 2023; Nel et al., 2011; Orr et al., 2009; Stothard et al., 2008; Tichon & Burgess-Limerick, 2011), hazard evaluation and risk reduction (Isleyen & Duzgun, 2019), and the remote operation of equipment using VR (Foster & Burton, 2004). Hence, VR technologies present an innovative solution for implementing smart evacuation systems in underground mining operations.

Recent research has shown that the adoption of real-time, personalized evacuation guidance strategies can significantly reduce evacuation times, thus improving safety in mining operations. These systems, by offering customized guidance, help prevent disorientation and mitigate biases in decision-making. This study seeks to deepen our understanding by conducting a thorough examination of the effectiveness of smart underground mine evacuation approach, comparing it with traditional strategies. The smart evacuation strategy proposed in this research integrates advanced features like beacon technology, evacuation optimization algorithms, and smartwatch navigation to provide optimal evacuation routes for underground mine workers. Utilizing virtual reality (VR) simulations, we replicated underground mine evacuation scenarios based on the drift network layout of an actual gold mine in Nevada, USA. Additionally, we created a simulation game that mimics real underground mine environments and emergency situations, enabling us to evaluate evacuation performance. Furthermore, the study explores the influence of low-visibility conditions and lighting on evacuation efficiency. Through these comprehensive analyses, this research offers valuable insights into the potential of smart evacuation strategies to enhance safety and productivity in underground mining operations.

The structure of this paper is as follows. Section 2 provides the proposed theoretical and experimental approaches for this study. Section 3 delves into the obtained results from the analyses, providing an accurate insight into the problem. Finally, Section 4 presents the conclusions and notable remarks.

Existing evacuation guidance strategies used in underground mining are not cutting-edge and may encounter significant challenges in situations of poor visibility or varying environmental conditions. These systems are anticipated to reduce evacuation durations, offer enhanced visibility even in extreme conditions, provide clear and unambiguous cues through visual, audible, and tactile means, require cost-effective maintenance, easily adapt to frequent layout changes in the mine, ensure reliability, and function independently of ambient lighting (D. Brenkley et al., 1999). This research aims to explore whether a new approach to evacuation guidance could expedite underground mine evacuations, mitigate the risk of entrapment, and ultimately, safeguard the lives of miners.

2.1. Experimental Setup

The simulations took place within a virtual reality (VR) representation of an underground mine. Opting for a virtual environment for the simulations served to expedite the process, conserve resources, and eliminate the need to expose test participants to the inherent dangers of actual underground mining environments. To replicate real-world conditions, a virtual counterpart resembling an operational gold mine in Nevada was constructed for the simulations. Study volunteers engaged in two evacuation scenarios: one utilizing traditional exit signage and the other employing a novel smart evacuation wayfinder strategy. Throughout the evacuation simulations, participants were rerouted to alternative exits if they encountered obstacles, with metrics recorded including total evacuation time and response time to obstacles or directional changes. Additionally, both pre- and post-simulation surveys were administered to gather data on participants' familiarity with VR technology and underground mining, personal preferences, and their VR experience during the simulation. Subsequently, statistical analysis was employed to assess the efficiency of the smart evacuation method compared to the traditional strategy, with a focus on quantifying potential time savings. The projected advantages of the smart evacuation approach over traditional methods were evaluated based on two hypotheses: (A) Smart evacuation facilitates quicker evacuation and (B) Smart evacuation enhances decision-making confidence.

2.2. Virtual Environment (VE)

To develop these simulations, categorized as "serious" games, we utilized the Unity 2018.3.2f1 game engine. Unity serves as a software development environment for crafting games across various platforms, including Windows, Android, iOS, and PlayStation. Additionally, constructing intricate games within Unity typically involves scripting in C#. In this instance, the layout of the mine was obtained from mine planning software, Vulcan, and brought into Unity as central line strings representing the mine drift. Then, an HTC VIVE Head-mounted display and a Virtuix Omni treadmill for locomotion were employed to facilitate interaction within the VE (Figure 1). As part of the setup process, users don the Omni overshoes equipped with tracking sensors before stepping onto the Omni treadmill to commence walking. These specialized overshoes ensure precise tracking of users' movements within the virtual environment. The arrangment of the Omni base, coupled with low-friction shoes, allows users' feet to glide back to the center after each stride, enabling natural movement. This method contrasts with traditional VR locomotion techniques like teleportation or flying. Given that actual movement in the desired direction aids navigation in a three-dimensional world, prompting the selection of the Virtuix Omni treadmill. Indeed, the treadmill furnishes participants with essential idiothetic (self-motion) cues (Chance et al., 1998; Jansen-Osmann & Fuchs, 2006; Mallot et al., 1998; Sharma et al., 2017).

The VE is modeled after a genuine underground gold mine located in Northern Nevada. As depicted in Figure 2, the top four levels of the mine (Levels 900, 1250, 1550, and 1715) were recreated. Due to constraints related to computational resources, labor, and overall effort, it was not feasible to produce a true-to-scale and highly detailed depiction of the mine. Consequently, the reconstruction maintains a conceptual nature.

In this simulation, the primary focus was on replicating key aspects of the mine layout, notably the positioning of evacuation points such as shafts and refuge chambers, along with the placement of egress route signs and maps. These elements were strategically arranged with input from a former mine employee who provided insights based on the actual layout of the mine serving as the model for the VE. This meticulous process ensured that the simulated conditions closely mirrored those of the real mine. As a result, any potential bias from the experimenter was mitigated, particularly concerning the critical placement of exit route signs, which could significantly impact the outcomes of the simulation. The simulation sought to offer an impartial assessment of the two distinct evacuation wayfinding systems by faithfully reproducing these conditions, as illustrated in Figure 3.

2.3. Experimental Design and Evacuation Scenarios

Before commencing the study, approval was obtained from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the University of Nevada, Reno to conduct experiments involving human subjects for this specific research endeavor. The experiments were conducted using a within-subject design to evaluate the effectiveness of each evacuation strategy. Additionally, an initial phase was established to minimize any learning curve when shifting from the traditional to the smart strategy. Throughout this phase, participants familiarized themselves with the haptic feedback, movement controls, and Head-Mounted Display (HMD) utilized in the simulation and VR environment until they felt "comfortable" with their usage. This step aimed to reduce differences in the gaming experience, allowing less experienced participants to learn. The experimental setup operated under the assumption that the majority of participants lacked prior experience with VR. Following the completion of the initial phase, participants commenced the mine evacuation simulations. In every simulation, participants were directed to the initial evacuation destination using either conventional signs or an intelligent wayfinder. However, upon reaching the first evacuation point, participants were redirected to the second point, as the first one became inaccessible during the simulation process. In this case, a timer was utilized to record the variable "total time" at the beginning of each simulation, aiming to assess the duration from the initial point to reaching the endpoint.

Figure 5 illustrates the sequence of simulations, with illuminated simulations denoted by "I" occurring at the same mine level. Both sets of simulations were conducted under dark conditions ("D"). Contrary to illuminated conditions, the Field-of-View (FOV) was notably reduced in the dark, affecting visibility down the drift/path compared to the illuminated simulations (see Figure 4). To maintain consistency, identical mine levels were chosen for both traditional ("C") and smart strategies ("S"), ensuring comparable complexity in terms of possible directions and intersections along the shortest route. To mitigate potential memory bias, distinct evacuation routes were utilized for each strategy, while ensuring consistency in metrics such as number of curves, distance to the final target, occurrence time, and obstacles. The study concluded with a post-survey utilizing the Presence Questionnaire by Witmer and Singer (Witmer & Singer, 1998) to evaluate participants' sense of presence and gather insights into their preferences regarding evacuation methods, including perceptions of smart evacuation's efficacy compared to traditional approaches.

2.4. Result Documentation

The simulation commences when the examiner initiates recording by pressing the "Start Recording" button, capturing the user's in-game view. The examiner retains the ability to conclude the simulation by turning off the play button whenever necessary. Once the game concludes, the recording is saved on the local drive. A script was created to capture a top-down screenshot of the mine level every five seconds, showing the player's current location and path. Consequently, the recorded video and screenshots enable analysis of areas where the player encountered difficulty in navigation. Notably, the path trail is visible solely in these screenshots and remains hidden from the user within the game interface.

In this case, four text documents are generated, each indicating the date and start time. Upon activation of the trigger, a user interface resembling the one depicted in Figure 6 will appear for five seconds, delivering the message: "The mine shaft is full! Seek refuge in a chamber!" or "The refuge chamber is occupied! Head towards the shaft!" contingent upon the simulation conditions. Information regarding the step count and hip-ring angle of the Omni is captured at two-second intervals, allowing for the depiction of variations over time through graphical representation. This data aids in assessing how frequently the user adjusted direction or explored alternate routes in different simulation scenarios.

The evacuation simulation process involved selecting different participants, all of whom were familiar with underground mining operations and trained for the evacuation process. Therefore, the analysis was performed based on the results of simulating the evacuation process in an underground mine emergency.

3.1 Quantitative Data Analysis

Figure 7(a) indicates a comparison of the average evacuation durations for each simulation scenario: SD (Mean = 183.56, Std = 49.76), SI (Mean = 198.23, Std = 47.41), CD (Mean = 220.89, Std = 52.36), and CI (Mean = 328.46, Std = 103.58). As depicted, the mean evacuation duration with smart evacuation strategies proved shorter compared to the duration required with the traditional strategies. This difference arises from providing optimal directions to people via smartphones, eliminating the need for them to make decisions themselves to find the shortest route to the refugee chamber and instead focusing their attention solely on the smartphone's guidelines. They do not need to inspect their environment or markings on the underground mine walls; their sole task is to follow the directions on the smartphones and reach the refugee chambers. Furthermore, it is notable that, on average, participants completed their mission more quickly under the SD and CD conditions compared to the SI and CI conditions. Therefore, despite the limited FOV in CD, participants exceeded the mean duration achieved in CI by 32.75%. This difference can be attributed to the fact that the illuminated emergency situation provides a wider FOV, leading to distraction as individual focus on unnecessary markings and situations. Conversely, dark conditions provide a restricted FOV, guiding individuals' focus towards evacuation directions.

Figure 7 (b) depicts the variation in collected data for all scenarios. Notably, the standard deviation for CI stands at 103.58, markedly surpassing that of SD (49.76), CD (52.36), and SI (47.41). In the CI dataset, total evacuation times exhibited some variability around the mean, varying from 178 to 521 seconds. Although 521 initially seems as an outlier in the CI dataset, examination within the acceptable data range (121.30 to 535.62), defined as two standard deviations from the mean, verifies that all data points fall within the range. Evacuation times in CI show less consistency compared to SD, CD, and SI scenarios. The disparity in standard deviations among SD, SI, and CD is not notably high. To ascertain notable disparities among the scenarios, a matched-pair t-test is performed, contrasting each approach with the others, as delineated in Table 1.

Table 1

The examination of statistical significance regarding the variation in total times across the scenarios
Time Difference Comparison (x̄₁ > x̄₂)			Average Time Reduction Percentage	Statistical Significance of Time Reduction (p-value)
SI	-	SD	7.4%	Significant (0.038)
CI	-	CD	32.75%	Significant (0.019)
CD	-	SD	16.90%	Significant (0.022)
CI	-	SI	39.65%	Significant (0.0006)

For each p-value below the predetermined significance threshold of 5%, it demonstrates a notable distinction among the datasets of the compared scenarios. Across all scenarios, there existed a marked discrepancy in total time. Also, the examination results revealed that smart evacuation strategies consistently outperformed the traditional strategy in terms of speed. Additionally, experiments showed that evacuations conducted in dark situations were notably swifter than those in illuminated surroundings. The most substantial decrease in average time, at 39.65%, was observed between CI and SI. Additionally, there was a time reduction of 32.75% between CI and CD. Hence, evacuations proceeded more quickly in dark environments compared to illuminated ones. A p-value of 0.022 for CD versus SD highlights a notable distinction, signifying that SD scenarios notably advanced at a faster pace, resulting in a 16.90% reduction in average total time. When contrasting SI with SD, the p-value of 0.038 is close to reaching statistical significance, with a corresponding time reduction of 7.4%.

3.2. Analysis of Qualitative Data

Figure 8 illustrates the frequency of participants' turning actions using the Omni in both SI and CI scenarios, reflecting alterations in walking direction or shifts in observation.

Analyzing the number and distribution of vertical lines in both plots (Fig. 8) indicates a greater occurrence of turning among participants using the traditional evacuation strategy. This implies that certain participants may have deviated from the optimal route, necessitating redirection or confirmation of their path choice. In contrast, participants utilizing the smart evacuation strategy predominantly adhered to the arrow guidance. The consistent recurrence of turning patterns in SI indicates a reduced level of uncertainty regarding the correct route, with most participants making similar turns at comparable points. It is important to note that both conditions featured an equal number of 90° and 180° turns. Examination of the corresponding plots for SD and CD does not indicate a significant difference in the frequency or order of turning movements between the traditional and smart strategies.

A post-survey also provided qualitative insights into participants' sense of immersion in the virtual environment and their individual preferences. Additionally, the study examined the potential impact of the equipment on participants' performance. Table 2 displays the average ratings for the Presence Questionnaire on a Likert scale ranging from 1 to 7. The achieved results revealed that most participants experienced a high level of immersion in the virtual environment, and the use of the treadmill for locomotion did not adversely affect their performance. While one participant found the experience intriguing and realistic, another reported motion sickness possibly due to perceived virtual world instability.

Table 2

The results of the defined Questionnaire
Number	Questions	Mean (x̄)	Standard Deviation (σ)
1	To what extent did the mechanism governing movement through the environment feel natural? (Extremely artificial – Very natural)	3.84	1.50
2	To what degree did the information from your different senses feel inconsistent or disconnected? (Not at all – Completely)	3.38	1.92
3	To what extent did your virtual experiences align with your real-world experiences? (Not consistent – Very consistent)	4.88	1.38
4	To what extent could you thoroughly explore or examine the environment visually? (Not at all – Completely)	6.40	0.64
7	How disoriented did you feel at the beginning of breaks or the end of the experimental session? (Not disoriented – Very disoriented)	1.79	0.92
8	How rapidly did you adapt to the virtual environment? (Not at all – Within 2 minutes)	6.38	0.96
9	How skilled did you feel in navigating and engaging with the virtual environment by the end of the session? (Not skilled – Very skilled)	5.57	1.61
10	To what extent did the visual display quality impede or distract you from completing assigned tasks and necessary activities? (No interference - Task performance hindered)	2.15	1.34
11	To what degree did the control devices disrupt the execution of allocated activities or tasks? (No disruption - Task performance prevented)	2.68	1.64

Overall, 83% of the participants expressed a preference for smart evacuation strategies over the traditional strategy. Feedback highlighted its guidance and ease of use. Additionally, all participants believed smart evacuation could enhance mining safety, citing benefits such as energy conservation and quicker access to safety. While some suggested more signage, most still deemed smart evacuation superior.

This research validates the first hypothesis that smart evacuation strategies outperform traditional ones, resulting in assured decision-making. Smart evacuation achieved a maximum time reduction of up to 40% compared to the traditional strategies. Moreover, smart evacuation was preferred by 83% of participants, all of whom recognized its potential to enhance safety during mine evacuations. To avoid a learning effect, a between-subjects design is suggested over a within-design, ensuring fair route assignments and reducing bias. Participants expressed confidence in the smart wayfinder, appreciating its simplicity and fewer turns. Despite efforts to mitigate the learning effect, minor impact persisted, yet participants generally performed well, particularly in the dark simulation environment. This improvement is attributed to participants' adaptation to the treadmill and wayfinder. For future research, it is suggested to investigate the superiority of smart evacuation strategies over traditional ones by pre-determining hazardous circumstances and directing evacuees along an optimal route from the start. Additionally, incorporating an algorithm considering individuals' fitness levels could help prioritize less fit miners for shorter distances to improve their chances of reaching safety promptly.

Acknowledgements

The authors express gratitude for the support received from the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH) for financing this research endeavor through contract number 75D30119C06044. Furthermore, the authors would like to acknowledge Nevada Gold Mines for supplying the required materials.

Funding

The This study was funded by the National Institute for Occupational Health and Safety (NIOSH) through contract number 75D30119C06044.

Conflicts of Interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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Comparative Analysis of Smart and Traditional Evacuation Strategies in Underground Mines Utilizing Virtual Reality Simulations

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Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Experimental Setup

2.2. Virtual Environment (VE)

2.3. Experimental Design and Evacuation Scenarios

2.4. Result Documentation

3. Results and Discussion

4. Conclusions

Declarations

References

Status:

Version 1