Spatial Heterogeneity of Landscapes and Land Cover in Sulawesi Island in Relation to Water Regulation Ecosystem Services

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4332597/v1

The dynamics of land cover changes on Sulawesi Island have been analyzed to assess their impact on water regulation ecosystem services. This research aimed to spatially map the temporal evolution of these services from 1990 to 2022, employing a comprehensive dataset of natural landscapes, vegetation, and land cover patterns. Findings indicate that the island initially maintained a high capacity for water regulation, predominantly classified as high or very high in 1990. However, a significant decline was observed, with the island shifting to predominantly medium classes of water regulation services by 2022. Central and South Sulawesi experienced the most significant decreases in service capacity, while Southeast Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi exhibited some improvement in recent years. The spatial analysis elucidated the interplay between environmental changes and the provision of ecosystem services, emphasizing the profound influence of anthropogenic land cover alterations. The loss of vegetated areas and the increase in agricultural and urbanized land have been linked to the decrease in water regulation services, with direct implications for flood risk, water availability, and watershed health. The study highlights the importance of ecological carrying capacity as an indicator of regional sustainability, reflected in the fluctuating levels of water regulation services. The research concludes that the downward trend in water regulation services necessitates a strategic focus on restoration and conservation efforts to ensure the long-term viability of environmental and human systems. Policymakers are urged to consider these findings in the development of land cover policies, emphasizing the necessity of maintaining ecosystem service levels to support the island's environmental carrying capacity and resilience. Future work should continue to monitor these trends and investigate the efficacy of conservation interventions, thereby contributing to the global understanding of land cover impacts on ecosystem services.

Ecosystem Services

Water Regulation

Land Cover Change

Spatial Heterogeneity

Sulawesi Island

The role of spatial land cover in influencing ecosystem services, particularly water regulation, has become an increasingly studied aspect of environmental science, reflecting the growing awareness of ecosystem contributions to human well-being. Sulawesi Island, with its diverse landscapes ranging from dense forests to sprawling agricultural fields and urban areas, presents a unique opportunity to examine these dynamics. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) framework, which categorizes ecosystem services into provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural, provides a structured approach to understanding these services (Hoover & Hopton, 2019). Recent studies, including those by Grizzetti et al. (2019), have emphasized the critical role of landscape and land cover changes in altering water regulation services, highlighting the need for integrated approaches that consider both ecological and human factors.

Moreover, the exponential increase in ecosystem services valuation research post-MEA has led to significant advancements in both qualitative and quantitative assessment methodologies (Pisani dkk., 2022). These methodologies have improved our understanding of how ecosystem services are quantitatively influenced by factors such as land cover change and landscape alterations, which are prevalent on Sulawesi Island. This burgeoning field necessitates a comprehensive review of current methodologies and their applications to specific geographical settings, to better inform sustainable land use policies and practices.

The hypothesis driving this research posits that spatial variations in land cover across Sulawesi Island significantly impact the capacity of water regulation ecosystem services. Regions experiencing transitions from forested to agricultural or urban landscapes are purported to show declines in these services, which is a concern for sustainable environmental management (Arunyawat & Shrestha, 2016). This problem is rooted in the need to understand the dynamics of land cover changes and their implications, which are currently under-researched in the context of Indonesian ecosystems. The general solution involves the integration of spatial data on landscapes, natural vegetation, and land cover to map ecosystem services spatially, providing a holistic view of how land cover impacts ecosystem functions.

By applying spatial analysis techniques, such as overlaying landscape, natural vegetation, and land cover data, researchers can derive more accurate assessments of ecosystem service distribution and capacity (Makovníková dkk., 2018). This integrative approach allows for the identification of strategic locations where ecosystem service values vary, thereby informing targeted management strategies that optimize land cover without compromising essential ecosystem functions.

The approach to addressing the research problem is underpinned by the application of established and emerging methodologies in ecosystem service valuation and mapping. Nasir et al. (2018) demonstrate the utility of these methodologies in accurately mapping and measuring water regulation services, which is crucial for effective resource management policy-making. By leveraging these methodologies, this study will utilize data integration and spatial analysis techniques to explore the heterogeneous nature of Sulawesi's landscapes and their ecological capacities.

Furthermore, the specific solution also entails the use of expert assessments and literature-derived scoring systems to quantify the contribution of different land cover parameters to water regulation services. This detailed assessment, as suggested by Kubalíková (2020), helps in understanding the nuanced impacts of each land cover type on the overall ecosystem services provided. Such detailed classifications and scores are essential for developing precise and sustainable land use management plans that align with environmental conservation goals.

Finally, the implementation of spatial overlays and weighted approaches in the analysis enables the study to pinpoint areas of high ecosystem service value, which are critical for maintaining water regulation functions. This strategic identification aids in the prioritization of conservation efforts and the planning of land development in a manner that sustains or enhances essential ecosystem services.

Despite the advancements in ecosystem service research and the application of the MEA framework, there remains a paucity of focused studies on the spatial heterogeneity of ecosystem services in Indonesia, particularly in relation to land cover changes on Sulawesi Island. The majority of existing studies are either too broad or do not sufficiently incorporate local ecological and socio-economic contexts into their frameworks (Grizzetti dkk., 2019). This gap indicates a need for region-specific research that integrates local land cover dynamics with global ecosystem service valuation methodologies to yield more regionally relevant and impactful insights.

The primary objective of this study is to understand the dynamics of land cover and its implications on water regulation ecosystem services in Sulawesi Island. The novelty of this research lies in its integration of detailed spatial data and the application of the MEA framework to assess and map ecosystem services at a regional scale. This approach is relatively novel in the Indonesian context, particularly with its focus on Sulawesi Island, and addresses the hypothesis that spatial variations in land cover significantly affect the capacity for water regulation. The scope of this study encompasses the integration of landscape data, natural vegetation, and land cover patterns to spatially map ecosystem services, providing insights that can inform sustainable land management and planning policies. This research will contribute to the broader understanding of how land cover impacts ecosystem services in tropical regions, offering valuable insights for policymakers and conservationists.

2.1. Research Location

This research was conducted on the island of Sulawesi, located between 1° North Latitude and 5° South Latitude, and between 120° East Longitude and 125° East Longitude. The study area includes six provinces on the island, namely South Sulawesi, Southeast Sulawesi, North Sulawesi, Central Sulawesi, Gorontalo, and West Sulawesi, as shown in Fig. 1.

2.2. Research Data

This study uses several parameters as outlined in the following Table 1.

Table 1

Data and Information for the Development of the Water Regulation Services Map
No	Data	Source
1	Spatial Data of Sulawesi Island Administration Geospatial Information Agency	Geospatial Information Agency (https://tanahair.indonesia.go.id/unduh-rbi/#/)
2	Spatial Data on Natural Landscape Characteristics	Ministry of Environment and Forestry Decision Number: SK.1272/MENLHK/SETJEN/PLA.3/12/2021 on the Determination of Natural Landscape and Vegetation Characteristics of the Indonesian Ecoregion Area Map Scale 1:250,000
3	Spatial Data on Natural Vegetation Characteristics	Ministry of Environment and Forestry Decision Number: SK.1272/MENLHK/SETJEN/PLA.3/12/2021 on the Determination of Natural Landscape and Vegetation Characteristics of the Indonesian Ecoregion Area Map Scale 1:250,000
4	Spatial Data Series of Land Cover: Year 1990 (to depict baseline conditions), Year 2006 (to depict the era of development in Indonesia and its impact on the environment) and Year 2022 (to depict existing conditions)	Ministry of Environment and Forestry (https://sigap.menlhk.go.id/server/rest/services/KLHK)

2.3. Calculation of Water Regulation Services

In this study, the calculation of water regulation services was conducted by applying weights and scores that were established based on expert decisions (expert choice). This approach was used to assess the effectiveness of parameter classifications that support water regulation services. The weight for natural landscape characteristics is 28%, the weight for natural vegetation characteristics is given a value of 12%, and the weight for land cover is 60%. The scores for these three parameters range from 1 (very low) to 5 (very high).

Furthermore, the water regulation services were calculated using a mathematical model of the simple additive weight method. The formula used to calculate the ecosystem services index is as follows (Taherdoost, 2023):

$$Ecosystem Service Index=\left({w}_{ba} x {s}_{ba}\right)+\left({{w}_{veg} x s}_{veg }\right)+\left({w}_{pl}x{s}_{pl}\right)$$

Where:

Wba : weight of natural landscape characteristics

Sba : score of natural landscape characteristics

Wveg : weight of natural vegetation characteristics

Sveg : score of natural vegetation characteristics

Wpl : weight of land cover class

Spl : score of land cover class

The value of the water regulation services index is expressed in the function and role of the three parameters, quantitatively based on scores and weights. The index value will range from 1–5 and is divided into five classes with an interval of 0.8, with the following criteria as shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Classification of Ecosystem Services Index Values
Interval	Class
1-1.08	Very Low
1.81–2.60	Low
2.61–3.40	Medium
3.41–4.20	High
4.21-5	Very High

This classification allows researchers to accurately categorize the condition of water regulation services based on observed changes in land cover. Thus, this method provides a comprehensive framework for evaluating and mapping the distribution of water regulation services on Sulawesi Island.

2.4. Calculation of Trends in Ecosystem Services Due to Land Cover Changes

To measure the trends in ecosystem services as a result of changes in land cover from 1990, 2006, to 2022, this study uses a structured methodological approach. This method aims to identify and analyze changes in ecosystem services based on available land cover data. Here is the proposed method narrative:

Creation of Ecosystem services Index: The first step in this study is the creation of an ecosystem services index for each year of available data, i.e., 1990, 2006, and 2022. This index is generated through the integration of spatial data including landscape, natural vegetation, and land cover. This index will reflect the condition of ecosystem services for each period.

Overlay of Indices for Different Periods: After the ecosystem services index is created, the next step is to overlay the 1990 index with the 2006 index, and between the 2006 index and the 2022 index. This overlay is done to identify changes between the two periods. This technique allows researchers to visualize and perform comparative analysis between periods.

Calculation of Ecosystem services Index Differences: From the results of the overlay, a calculation of the differences in the ecosystem services index will be conducted. This calculation aims to identify the trends in changes in ecosystem services. The resulting difference values will be categorized into three conditions: a value of 0 indicates no change in ecosystem services (steady condition), a positive value indicates an improvement in ecosystem services, and a negative value indicates a decline in ecosystem services.

Visualization of Spatial Distribution and Analysis of Percentage of Change: The results of the difference calculation will be visualized in the form of spatial distribution to show the geographical distribution of changes in ecosystem services. In addition, an analysis will be conducted to calculate the percentage of area changes from the condition of ecosystem services that have improved, declined, or remained the same. This will provide a clear picture of the impact of land cover changes on ecosystem services in the study area.

3.1. Water regulation ecosystem services on Sulawesi Island

Sulawesi Island has 43 types of landscapes and 42 types of natural vegetation based on Ministry of Environment and Forestry Decision Number: SK.1272/MENLHK/SETJEN/PLA.3/12/2021 on the Determination of Natural Landscape and Vegetation Characteristics. From the characteristics of landscapes and natural vegetation, the most dominant are denudational mountains with mixed materials of outer igneous and pyroclastic rocks in landscapes covering 16% of the total area of Sulawesi Island and friendly forest vegetation (non dipterocarp) in natural vegetation covering 17%. Where the landscape classification has a high score (score 4) in regulating water flow, as well as the natural vegetation classification which has a very high score (score 5). This illustrates that in landscape terms, the Sulawesi Island region has high support for water regulation ecosystem services. When viewed in each province on Sulawesi Island, each province has dominant landscape characteristics and natural vegetation. Where each dominant landscape and natural vegetation characteristic (3 dominant classes) in each province has a high and very high water regulation ecosystem service score except for landscape characteristics in Central Sulawesi Province, as presented in Fig. 2.

From Fig. 2, it can be seen that landscape and natural vegetation dominantly on Sulawesi Island support high water regulation ecosystem services. However, the influence of these endogenous parameters is only 28% for landscape and 12% for natural vegetation. Meanwhile, 60% is influenced by exogenous factors, namely land cover. Based on land cover data on Sulawesi Island, the classification of forests and water bodies has a very high score (5) and high (4) to support water regulation ecosystem services, then open and built-up areas such as settlements have a very low score (1). Changes in land cover on Sulawesi Island over time affect the region's support for water regulation. This has led to many hydrological problems related to water flow management. Based on 1990 land cover data in Sulawesi Island, which describes the baseline condition, it is known that vegetated areas such as forests and shrubs amounted to 75% of the total area, while after 2006, which represents the beginning of the development era in Indonesia, it decreased by 61%, then in the existing conditions in 2022 it decreased again to 54% and was followed by an increase in agricultural land (plantations, dry land and rice fields) as well as open and built-up land, In detail, changes in land cover in each province are shown in Fig. 3.

Based on Fig. 3, it can be seen that there are changes in land cover in the three eras studied, where land cover that has a high score contribution to water regulation environmental services, which is vegetated areas, almost all provinces have decreased in area, except North Sulawesi Province, where there is an anomaly based on land cover data issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forestry where after a decrease in the 1990–2006 period of 18%, there was a 15% increase again. This could be due to poor spatial data due to the interpretation process or indeed an improvement in forest cover conditions. But overall, the area of vegetated areas has decreased, such as in Gorontalo Province which decreased by 19%, West Sulawesi by 11%, South Sulawesi by 47%, Central Sulawesi by 14% and Southeast Sulawesi by 12%.

The findings corroborate the literature on the significant effects of land cover and landscape patterns on water quality and ecosystem service delivery (Grab dkk., 2018; Lei dkk., 2021). The scores assigned to various landscapes and land cover types in Sulawesi reflect their inherent capacity for providing water regulation services, a concept supported by the theoretical underpinnings in Pechanec et al. (2019) and Twisa et al. (2020). Deforestation trends observed in Fig. 2, particularly in Central Sulawesi, echo the concerns raised by Rijal (2023) regarding high deforestation rates in the region's largest forest areas. The impacts on biodiversity and the environment from such deforestation have been highlighted by Malik et al. (2016) and Barral et al. (2020).

The findings from Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 emphasize the critical role of land cover and vegetation in maintaining water regulation ecosystem services. The decreasing trend of vegetated areas and the increase in deforestation, as observed in Central Sulawesi, could compromise the water regulation services that are vital for sustainable livelihoods and environmental stability (Pusparini dkk., 2023; Supriatna dkk., 2020). The alterations in land cover, particularly the conversion of forested areas to agricultural or urban landscapes, as indicated by the declining vegetative cover and increasing deforestation rates, have profound implications for the region's hydrology and the provision of crucial ecosystem services (Darma & Fahrunsyah, 2022; Netzer dkk., 2019).

Scientifically, these findings contribute to the broader understanding of how spatial variations in landscape and land cover influence ecosystem services. Practically, the implications are significant for policymakers and land use planners who must consider these dynamics in their efforts to maintain ecosystem services, manage water resources sustainably, and mitigate the adverse effects of land cover change. This study provides a foundation for targeted conservation strategies and underscores the need for better land management practices to protect and enhance the island's natural landscapes and vegetation that are crucial for water regulation services.

With information on landscape, natural vegetation and land cover changes from 1990, 2006 (to illustrate the era of development in Indonesia and its impact on the environment), and 2022 (to illustrate existing conditions), information was obtained that the condition of water regulation ecosystem services on Sulawesi Island in 1990 was dominantly in the high class, but in 2006 and 2022 it decreased to the dominant medium class, as presented in Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5.

Table 3

Distribution of Water Regulating Ecosystem Services in 1990
Province	Area per class of ecosystem services (ha)					Grand Total
Province	Very low	Low	Medium	High	Very high	Grand Total
Gorontalo	445,77	18.984,83	335.064,82	603.179,32	334.677,24	1.292.351,98
West Sulawesi	1.574,43	52.161,77	687.517,95	553.944,27	534.982,86	1.830.181,28
South Sulawesi	21.687,82	130.716,01	3.185.775,58	1.446.611,51	1.440.811,37	6.225.602,29
Central Sulawesi	52.328,19	243.933,79	1.490.240,80	3.321.318,65	1.449.476,24	6.557.297,67
Southeast Sulawesi	7.736,02	399.933,60	1.408.649,56	1.784.449,35	486.373,86	4.087.142,40
North Sulawesi	2.127,56	88.431,97	748.713,07	589.090,54	509.541,75	1.937.904,89
Grand Total	85.899,79	934.161,97	7.855.961,79	8.298.593,65	4.755.863,32	21.930.480,52

Table 4

Distribution of Water Regulating Ecosystem Services in 2006
Province	Area per class of ecosystem services (ha)					Grand Total
Province	Very low	Low	Medium	High	Very high	Grand Total
Gorontalo	343,38	22.968,19	430.087,09	572.253,29	266.700,03	1.292.351,98
West Sulawesi	664,02	92.643,20	971.277,57	687.830,42	77.766,07	1.830.181,28
South Sulawesi	8.401,00	137.020,33	3.607.025,67	1.942.270,41	530.884,88	6.225.602,29
Central Sulawesi	20.518,60	389.106,55	2.508.462,61	2.952.820,71	686.389,20	6.557.297,67
Southeast Sulawesi	13.762,83	506.181,10	1.956.591,93	1.511.084,55	99.521,99	4.087.142,40
North Sulawesi	1.981,90	98.406,94	900.062,53	639.550,26	297.903,25	1.937.904,89
Grand Total	45.671,73	1.246.326,31	10.373.507,41	8.305.809,64	1.959.165,43	21.930.480,52

Table 5

Distribution of Water Regulating Ecosystem Services in 2022
Province	Area per class of ecosystem services (ha)					Grand Total
Province	Very low	Low	Medium	High	Very high	Grand Total
Gorontalo	1.049,07	64.298,37	494.326,06	491.227,75	241.450,74	1.292.351,98
West Sulawesi	1.663,92	75.073,92	946.453,89	733.936,31	73.053,24	1.830.181,28
South Sulawesi	34.555,90	358.846,97	3.905.855,85	1.575.384,53	350.959,05	6.225.602,29
Central Sulawesi	25.168,25	544.228,75	2.587.626,15	2.533.665,35	866.609,16	6.557.297,67
Southeast Sulawesi	32.167,58	601.711,85	1.677.149,03	1.329.220,27	446.893,66	4.087.142,40
North Sulawesi	3.025,05	84.113,73	643.915,88	963.326,89	243.523,35	1.937.904,89
Grand Total	97.629,77	1.728.273,59	10.255.326,86	7.626.761,09	2.222.489,20	21.930.480,52

Based on Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5, it can be seen that the distribution of water regulation ecosystem services in each province on Sulawesi Island varies greatly. However, consistently the areas categorized as high and very high have changed over time, this is due to changes in vegetated areas that are decreasing. It can be seen in Fig. 4 related to the changing trend of areas with high and very high ecosystem services in each province and Fig. 5 related to the spatial distribution of ecosystem service classes in each region on Sulawesi Island.

From Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, it can be seen that areas with high and very high classes experienced significant changes and were replaced by medium classes, especially in areas such as the provinces of South Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi. However, if we look in more detail, especially in the provinces of Southeast Sulawesi and North Sulawesi, there are several increases in the area of high and very high classes, especially from 2006 to 2022. The observed trends align with the broader understanding of ecosystem services as a determinant of environmental carrying capacity. Geijzendorffer et al. (2017) elucidate the direct link between biodiversity, ecosystem services, and human well-being, positing that regions with a higher caliber of ecosystem services exhibit a greater environmental carrying capacity. This decline as shown in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 is consistent with the impact of human activities on carrying capacity as noted by Mardiana et al. (2023), suggesting that the decrease in ecosystem service levels can negatively affect the environment's ability to support life and well-being. Moreover, the shift in ecosystem service classes across Sulawesi underscores the findings of Zhang & Wang (2023), who assert that ecological carrying capacity is a critical measure of ecosystem health.

The shift from higher to medium classes of ecosystem services in Sulawesi, detailed in the provided tables and figures, has both scientific and practical implications. Scientifically, it provides empirical evidence for the hypothesis that changes in land cover, particularly deforestation and land cover changes, can lead to a measurable decrease in water regulation services—an essential component of ecosystem health and resilience. Hein et al. (2016) emphasize that ecosystems are assets that offer crucial services, and the observed trend demonstrates the need for enhanced natural capital accounting that reflects the true value of these services.

Practically, the results serve as a call to action for policymakers and land managers. The significant reduction in areas classified as high and very high in water regulation services highlights the urgency of revising land use policies and implementing sustainable practices to halt or reverse the degradation of ecosystem services. This is particularly relevant in decision-making as Karami et al. (2023) underscore the importance of ecosystem services in informed decision-making processes, suggesting that a deeper understanding and integration of these services are essential for sustaining environmental carrying capacity and, by extension, human well-being. The findings from Sulawesi thus contribute valuable insights into the ongoing global dialogue on conservation priorities, sustainable development, and environmental governance.

3.2. Trends in Changes in Water Regulating Ecosystem Services

The changes in the water regulation services of Sulawesi Island, as shown in Fig. 5, demonstrate a significant alteration in the landscape's ability to provide these vital services. From 1990 to 2006, there was a 28% reduction across the island, with Central Sulawesi contributing a 10% decrease, followed by South Sulawesi at 6%, Southeast Sulawesi at 5%, West Sulawesi at 4%, North Sulawesi at 2%, and Gorontalo at 1%. The trend continued between 2006 and 2022, with a further decrease of 19%, where South Sulawesi contributed 7%, Central Sulawesi 5%, and the remaining provinces 1% each. However, during this period, Southeast Sulawesi and Central Sulawesi saw some increases of 5% and 4%, respectively. Spatial distribution of the water regulation ecosystem service changes can be seen in Fig. 6.

According to Fig. 7, particularly part c, there is a 34% decrease in water regulation ecosystem services in Sulawesi, with Central Sulawesi accounting for an 11% decrease, South Sulawesi for 10%, and the other provinces contributing to the remainder. Such a decline in ecosystem services can lead to a decreased natural capacity of ecosystems like forests, wetlands, and soil to absorb and store rainwater, thereby increasing flood risk and frequency, as detailed in studies such as Nefilinda et al. (2023). Lohani et al. (2020) further correlate deforestation with degraded water quality and sedimentation, impacting water management services.

The observed degradation in water regulation services necessitates serious restoration and conservation efforts to prevent long-term damage to the environment and communities dependent on these water resources. The critical status of 17% of watersheds in Sulawesi, as stated by the Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry Decision Number SK. 304/MENLHK/PDASHL/DAS.0/7/2018, reflects the impact of changes in ecosystem services. These findings underscore the dire need for integrated watershed management strategies that consider the provision of ecosystem services, as well as the challenges of maintaining human livelihoods and ecological stability amid declining water supplies predicted by Castro et al. (2016). Furthermore, regional analysis and management interventions as recommended by Singh et al. (2014) are critical for assessing the trade-offs for downstream areas and on-site impacts, highlighting the intricate relationship between water management practices and ecosystem service provision within watersheds.

This research has delineated a comprehensivel.. spatial and temporal portrayal of water regulation ecosystem services on Sulawesi Island, Indonesia, over a thirty-year span. The findings from 1990 to 2022 unequivocally demonstrate a transition from higher classes of ecosystem services to predominantly medium classes, concomitant with land cover changes due to human activities and development pressures. These alterations have culminated in a discernible decrease in the island's capacity for water regulation, with implications for ecological resilience and human well-being.

Central Sulawesi, followed by South Sulawesi, has exhibited the most substantial reductions, necessitating immediate attention to reverse the degradation trends. The resurgence in ecosystem service classes in certain provinces, however, offers a glimmer of hope and underlines the potential for recovery through targeted conservation efforts. This study not only confirms the crucial role of intact landscapes in providing essential ecosystem services but also reinforces the necessity for sustainable land management practices that are informed by rigorous environmental monitoring and assessment.

In light of the environmental challenges identified, this research recommends the implementation of an integrated watershed management framework that prioritizes the conservation and restoration of natural landscapes. It also calls for policies that balance development needs with environmental conservation, thereby ensuring the sustenance of ecosystem services critical for the region's environmental carrying capacity and the livelihoods of its inhabitants. Futuraze research should aim to explore the effectiveness of such integrated approaches and their impacts on reversing the negative trends in ecosystem service provision on Sulawesi Island.

Author Contribution

M.N developed the research concept, processed the data, visualized the data, and drafted the manuscript

Acknowledgement

We extend our gratitude to the Center for Ecoregion Control of Sulawesi and Maluku, Ministry of Environment and Forestry, for providing access to valuable information that has significantly contributed to our research and development of ecosystem services mapping methods. We appreciate their support and cooperation in facilitating our scientific endeavors.

Funding

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Competing interests

The author declares no competing interests.

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No competing interests reported.

Spatial Heterogeneity of Landscapes and Land Cover in Sulawesi Island in Relation to Water Regulation Ecosystem Services

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Methodology