Age
As expected, the two-way ANOVA results showed no age difference in the four subgroups (group: F (1,33) = 1.123, η2 = .037, p = .298; gender: F (1,33) = 0.230, η2 = .008, p = .635; group x gender: F (1,33) = 1.034, η2 = .034, p = .318), indicating the participants were successfully matched.
Structural morphometry differences
1. Cortical thickness
(1) The music training experience had the main effect on the parsopercularis and precentral gyri in left hemisphere, on the postcentral gyrus and superior parietal lobule in left hemisphere, as well as the superior frontal, supramarginal gyri and inferior parietal lobule in both hemispheres. (2) The gender had the main effect on the lingual, precentral, superior frontal gyri and inferior parietal lobule in left hemisphere, and on the fusiform, superior temporal, parstriangularis gyri in right hemisphere. (3) Moreover, the music training and gender had interaction effect on the left bankssts and right supramarginal gyri (see Table 1 and Fig. 1(1)).
Table 1
Results of ANCOVA (with age and cranium volume as covariates) for all main variables.
Measures | Main and interaction effect | Regions | Cluster size | p value |
Cortical thickness | Group | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 1436 | 0.000 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 460 | 0.002 | |
| | Parsopercularis | 210 | 0.000 | |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 473 | 0.001 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 105 | 0.002 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 1094 | 0.000 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 761 | 0.000 | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 392 | 0.003 | |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 416 | 0.001 | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 181 | 0.000 | |
| Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 490 | 0.000 | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 115 | 0.001 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 100 | 0.007 | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 105 | 0.007 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Fusiform | 123 | 0.003 | |
| | Superior temporal gyrus | 113 | 0.006 | |
| | Parstriangularis | 121 | 0.000 | |
| Group x Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Bankssts gyrus | 100 | 0.006 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 221 | 0.007 | |
Fractal dimensionality | Group | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Fusiform | 224 | 0.000 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 484 | 0.000 | |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 337 | 0.003 | |
| | Lateral occipital gyrus | 156 | 0.001 | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 129 | 0.002 | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 119 | 0.002 | |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 119 | 0.000 | |
| Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Inferior temporal gyrus | 132 | 0.004 | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 107 | 0.001 | |
| | Lateral occipital gyrus | 100 | 0.001 | |
| | Isthmus cingulate cortex | 105 | 0.001 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Insula gyrus | 147 | 0.000 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 132 | 0.009 | |
| | Fusiform | 102 | 0.005 | |
| Group x Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 162 | 0.005 | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 134 | 0.000 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Fusiform | 211 | 0.001 | |
| | Isthmus cingulate cortex | 166 | 0.000 | |
| | Medial orbitofrontal gyrus | 155 | 0.001 | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 173 | 0.003 | |
Gyrification | Group | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Fusiform | 350 | 0.000 | |
| | Insula gyrus | 332 | 0.003 | |
| | Lateral orbitofrontal gyrus | 273 | 0.001 | |
| | Precuneus | 175 | 0.004 | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 136 | 0.015 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 117 | 0.002 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 413 | 0.002 | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 177 | 0.009 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 268 | 0.001 | |
| | Insula gyrus | 133 | 0.011 | |
| | Parsorbitalis gyrus | 146 | 0.001 | |
| Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 119 | 0.007 | |
| | Parsopercularis gyrus | 162 | 0.003 | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 105 | 0.005 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Superior temporal gyrus | 292 | 0.000 | |
| | Insula gyrus | 333 | 0.001 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 253 | 0.004 | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 123 | 0.001 | |
| Group x Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Parahippocampal gyrus | 261 | 0.000 | |
| | Parsopercularis gyrus | 155 | 0.004 | |
| | Rostral anterior cingulate cortex | 101 | 0.003 | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 101 | 0.004 | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 133 | 0.004 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Fusiform | 255 | 0.000 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 126 | 0.004 | |
Sulcal depth | Group | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 467 | 0.005 | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 494 | 0.008 | |
| | Fusiform | 334 | 0.002 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 317 | 0.004 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 140 | 0.010 | |
| | Precuneus | 127 | 0.002 | |
| | Parstriangularis gyrus | 101 | 0.018 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 237 | 0.000 | |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 164 | 0.008 | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 110 | 0.017 | |
| Gender | Left hemisphere | | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 243 | 0.000 | |
| | Precuneus | 130 | 0.010 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 180 | 0.006 | |
| | Parstriangularis gyrus | 111 | 0.001 | |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 101 | 0.000 | |
| Group x Gender | Right hemisphere | | | |
| | Precuneus | 215 | 0.006 | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 112 | 0.006 | |
Note: The multiple comparison correction was used with non-parametric permutations (n = 5,000) and threshold-free cluster enhancement (TFCE) correction p < .05, cluster size > 100. |
The post hoc analysis showed that: (1) male musicians had increased cortical thickness on the left superior frontal, lingual, precentral, inferior parietal lobule, on the right superior temporal, parstriangularis gyri, but decreased cortical thickness on the right fusiform gyrus, than female musicians. (2) Male nonmusicians had increased cortical thickness on the left lingual gyrus, than female nonmusicians. (3) Male musicians had increased cortical thickness on the left superior frontal, supramarginal, bankssts gyri, inferior parietal lobule, on the right superior frontal, superior and inferior parietal lobules, than male nonmusicians. (4) Female musicians had increased cortical thickness on the left superior frontal, supramarginal, parsopercularis gyri, inferior parietal lobule, and on the right superior frontal, postcentral gyri, superior and inferior parietal lobules, than female nonmusicians (see Table 2).
Table 2
Post hoc analysis (with age and cranium volume as covariates) for all main variables
Measures | Group comparisons | Regions | Cluster size | p value |
Cortical thickness | male musicians > female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 497 | 0.000 |
| | Lingual gyrus | 125 | 0.002 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 293 | 0.009 |
| | Precentral gyrus | 193 | 0.002 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior temporal gyrus | 170 | 0.001 |
| | Parstriangularis gyrus | 212 | 0.004 |
| male musicians < female musicians | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Fusiform | 202 | 0.002 |
| male nonmusicians > female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 143 | 0.002 |
| male musicians > male nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 1265 | 0.000 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 447 | 0.002 |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 212 | 0.003 |
| | bankssts | 115 | |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 1061 | 0.001 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 334 | 0.001 |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 164 | 0.014 |
| female musicians > female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 1314 | 0.000 |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 657 | 0.001 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 391 | 0.000 |
| | Parsopercularis gyrus | 246 | 0.000 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 831 | 0.000 |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 149 | 0.005 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 112 | 0.018 |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 200 | 0.001 |
Fractal dimensionality | male musicians > female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Inferior temporal gyrus | 232 | 0.000 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 140 | 0.003 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 222 | 0.001 |
| | Isthmus cingulate cortex | 157 | 0.001 |
| | Medial orbitofrontal gyrus | 153 | 0.012 |
| male musicians < female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Isthmus cingulate cortex | 134 | 0.000 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Fusiform | 291 | 0.000 |
| | superiorfrontal | 313 | 0.000 |
| male nonmusicians > female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 299 | 0.001 |
| | Paracentral lobule | 158 | 0.000 |
| | Inferior temporal gyrus | 124 | 0.000 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Insula | 356 | 0.003 |
| | Fusiform | 134 | 0.005 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 113 | 0.008 |
| male nonmusicians < female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 230 | 0.001 |
| male musicians > male nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 180 | 0.000 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 330 | 0.000 |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 278 | 0.007 |
| male musicians < male nonmusicians | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 195 | 0.007 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 191 | 0.008 |
| | Supramarginal gyrus | 145 | 0.001 |
| female musicians > female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 173 | 0.000 |
| | Fusiform | 171 | 0.001 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 350 | 0.001 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 190 | 0.006 |
| female musicians < female nonmusicians | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 108 | 0.000 |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyurs | 172 | 0.002 |
Gyrification | male musicians > female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Parahippocampal gyrus | 234 | 0.009 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior temporal gyrus | 398 | 0.004 |
| | Fusiform | 310 | 0.000 |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 227 | 0.003 |
| | Precentral gyrus | 228 | 0.002 |
| male musicians < female musicians | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Insula gyrus | 142 | 0.010 |
| male nonmusicians > female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Lingual gyrus | 173 | 0.004 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 262 | 0.002 |
| | Superior temporal gyrus | 133 | 0.002 |
| male nonmusicians < female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 372 | 0.000 |
| | Parsopercularis gyrus | 214 | 0.003 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Insula gyrus | 297 | 0.002 |
| male musicians < male nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Precuneus | 130 | 0.000 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 194 | 0.000 |
| | Insula gyrus | 101 | 0.000 |
| | Paracentral lobule | 165 | 0.000 |
| female musicians < female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Insula gyrus | 405 | 0.002 |
| | Fusiform gyrus | 295 | 0.000 |
| | Precuneus | 257 | 0.004 |
| | Lateral orbitofrontal gyrus | 117 | 0.002 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 163 | 0.007 |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 110 | 0.013 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Paracentral lobule | 472 | 0.000 |
| | Fusiform | 251 | 0.000 |
Sulcal depth | male musicians > female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 218 | 0.009 |
| male musicians < female musicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Precuneus | 130 | 0.002 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 195 | 0.003 |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 162 | 0.003 |
| | precuneus | 162 | 0.003 |
| male nonmusicians < female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 205 | 0.006 |
| | Superior parietal lobule | 100 | 0.005 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Parstriangularis gyrus | 135 | 0.002 |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 110 | 0.000 |
| male musicians > male nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Fusiform | 394 | 0.003 |
| male musicians < male nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Postcentral gyrus | 540 | 0.004 |
| | Precuneus | 176 | 0.008 |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 220 | 0.021 |
| | Precentral gyrus | 238 | 0.012 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Precentral gyrus | 344 | 0.000 |
| female musicians > female nonmusicians | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Precuneus | 539 | 0.000 |
| female musicians < female nonmusicians | Left hemisphere | | |
| | Superior frontal gyrus | 447 | 0.001 |
| | Precentral gyrus | 205 | 0.002 |
| | Inferior parietal lobule | 199 | 0.001 |
| | Right hemisphere | | |
| | Rostral middle frontal gyrus | 207 | 0.004 |
Note: The multiple comparison correction was used with non-parametric permutations (n = 5,000) and threshold-free cluster enhancement (TFCE) |
correction p < .05, cluster size > 100. |
2. Fractal dimensionality
(1) The music training experience had the main effect on the left fusiform gyrus, and the right postcentral, rostral middle frontal, superior frontal, lateral occipital, supramarginal gyri and superior parietal lobule. (2) The gender had the main effect on the left inferior temporal, superior frontal, lateral occipital and isthmus cingulate gyri, and on the right insula, precentral, fusiform gyri. (3) The music training and gender had interaction effect on the left lingual gyrus and paracentral lobule, and on the right fusiform, isthmus cingulate, medial orbitofrontal, superior frontal gyri (see Table 1 and Fig. 1(2)).
The post hoc analysis showed that: (1) male musicians had increased fractal dimensionality on the left superior frontal, inferior temporal gyri, on the right precentral, medial orbitofrontal gyri, isthmus cingulate cortex, but decreased fractal dimensionality on the left isthmus cingulate cortex, on the right superior frontal, fusiform gyri, than female musicians. (2) Male nonmusicians had increased fractal dimensionality on the left superior frontal, inferior temporal gyri, paracentral lobule, on the right insula, fusiform, superior frontal gyri, but decreased fractal dimensionality on the left lingual gyrus, than female nonmusicians. (3) Male musicians had increased fractal dimensionality on the left lingual gyrus, and on the right postcentral, rostral middle frontal gyri, but had decreased fractal dimensionality on the right superior frontal, supramarginal gyri, superior parietal lobule, than male nonmusicians. (4) Female musicians had increased fractal dimensionality on the left fusiform gyrus and paracentral lobule, on the right postcentral, superior frontal gyri, but decreased fractal dimensionality on the right rostral middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal lobule, than female nonmusicians (see Table 2).
(1) The music training experience had the main effect on the fusiform, lateral orbitofrontal and precuneus gyri in left hemisphere, and on the parsorbitalis gyrus and paracentral lobule in right hemisphere, as well as on the insula gyrus, superior and inferior parietal lobules in both hemispheres. (2) The gender had the main effect on the left supramarginal, parsopercularis and lingual gyri, and on the right superior temporal, insula, precentral gyri and superior parietal lobule. (3) The music training and gender had interaction effect on the left parahippocampus, parsopercularis, rostral anterior cingulate, lingual gyri, paracentral lobule, and on the right fusiform and precentral gyri (see Table 1 and Fig. 1(3)).
The post hoc analysis showed that: (1) male musicians had increased gyrification on the left parahippocampus gyrus, on the right superior temporal, fusiform, precentral gyri, superior parietal lobule, but had decreased gyrification on the right insula gyrus, than female musicians. (2) Male nonmusicians had increased gyrification on the left lingual gyrus, on the right precentral, superior temporal gyri, but had decreased gyrification on the left parsopercularis gyrus, paracentral lobule, and on the right insula gyrus, than female nonmusicians. (3) Male musicians had decreased gyrification than male nonmusicians on the left precuneus, and on the right insula gyrus, superior parietal, paracentral lobules. (4) Female musicians had decreased gyrification than female nonmusicians on the left insula, fusiform, precuneus, lateral orbitofrontal gyri, superior and inferior parietal lobules, and on the right fusiform gyrus and paracentral lobule (see Table 2).
(1) The music training experience had the main effect on the postcentral, superior frontal, fusiform, precuneus, parstriangularis gyri in left hemisphere, on the rostral middle frontal gyrus in right hemisphere, and on the precentral gyrus and inferior parietal lobule in both hemispheres. (2) The gender had the main effect on the left precuneus gyrus and superior parietal lobule, and on the right precentral, parstriangularis, rostral middle frontal gyri. (3) The music training and gender had interaction effect on the right precuneus and precentral gyri (see Table 1 and Fig. 1(4)).
The post hoc analysis showed that: (1) male musicians had increased sulcal depth on the left superior parietal lobule, but had decreased sulcal depth on the left precuneus and on the right precentral, rostral middle frontal, precuneus, than female musicians. (2) Male nonmusicians had decreased sulcal depth than female nonmusicians on the left precentral gyrus, superior parietal lobule, and on the right parstriangularis, rostral middle frontal gyri. (3) Male musicians had increased sulcal depth on the left fusiform gyrus, but decreased sulcal depth on the left postcentral, precentral, precuneus, superior frontal gyri, and on the right precentral gyrus, than male nonmusicians. (4) Female musicians had increased sulcal depth on the right precuneus, but had decreased sulcal depth on the left superior frontal, precentral gyri, inferior parietal lobule, and on the right rostral middle frontal gyrus, than female nonmusicians (see Table 2).