2.1 Constructivism as an Instructional Philosophy
Constructivism, a learning theory, is commonly approached from a cognitive standpoint, often seen as a response to the information processing theory that explores how the human brain encodes information for storage (Loyens, 2007). Similar to other cognitive learning theories, it is a conceptual framework for understanding how prior information in human memory becomes the foundation for acquiring new knowledge (Doorslaer, 1988; Anderson & Piazza, 1996). It challenges the traditional learning environment, rejecting the linear transmission of knowledge from teacher to students. Advocates of constructivism argue that the transfer of knowledge from an expert to learners is not the most effective way to acquire knowledge; rather, learners benefit more from actively participating in constructing their own knowledge. Constructivism promotes a learner-centered approach, with the teacher playing the role of a facilitator or educational guide (Dejong & Groomes, 1996; Kroll & Laboskey, 1996; Baysen & Baysen, 2017; Kosnik et al., 2018). While many cognitive theories stress active learning, constructivism places particular emphasis on learners actively constructing their understanding of educational topics.
Constructivism, as a theory of learning and instruction, manifests in various forms such as cognitive, social, and critical constructivism. Cognitive constructivism, also known as individual or psychological constructivism, focuses on how individuals create knowledge through existing schemas (Loyens, 2007). Piaget (1976), credited with the cognitive constructivist perspective, argues that knowledge is not merely received and absorbed but is constructed through coordinated cognitive activities based on experiences with the surrounding world. Individuals, according to Piaget, develop mental models or schemas through their interactions with the environment. Another variant of constructivism is social constructivism, introduced by Lev Vygotsky. In this theory, knowledge construction is viewed as a social process where individual efforts are complemented by significant contributions from others (Lourenço, 2012; Q. Zhang & Kou, 2012; Trif, 2015). Unlike cognitive constructivism, social constructivism emphasizes the collaborative aspect of learning, where the interactions with others play a vital role in the construction of knowledge.
Critical constructivism, as a variant of constructivism, follows a similar learning approach. Notably, the distinguishing aspect of critical constructivism is its strong focus on fostering 'critical thinking' (Watts & Jofili, 1998). Educators within the critical constructivism framework prioritize equipping learners with 'emancipatory potentials' (Gilbert, 1994). Therefore, the emphasis lies on guiding students to develop critical thinking skills, enabling them to reflect on societal experiences and analyze social structures and powers. Critical constructivists advocate for change, aiming to contribute to the creation of a better society. Consequently, they promote an educational approach that goes beyond acquiring content knowledge to instill awareness of societal or national issues in learners. In a critical constructivist learning environment, students are often tasked with independent or collaborative reflection on social issues, providing constructive contributions towards resolving these challenges (Jofili & Watts, 1995; Stears, 2009).
2. Self-Efficacy as a Predictor of Teachers’ Instructional Practices
Teachers play a crucial role in implementing new curriculum strategies. Their perceived self-efficacy, which refers to their judgment of their ability to effectively complete an educational task (Bandura, 1982), significantly impacts their attitudes, motivation, and, most importantly, their success in that specific task (Bandura, 1997). An individual's thought processes and emotional responses to situations may be influenced by their sense of efficacy. This suggests that individuals with higher self-efficacy levels are more likely to remain composed and productive when faced with challenges. Conversely, individuals with lower self-efficacy tend to approach situations with pessimism, perceiving tasks as more difficult than they actually are. These negative thoughts can hinder their success by increasing stress and anxiety levels and, crucially, by diminishing the confidence required to overcome obstacles (Pajares, 2002). In this context, researchers in the field of education consistently show interest in and actively seek to assess the relationship between teacher efficacy and their conduct in the classroom, particularly in the context of new educational reforms.
Numerous studies highlight that teachers' sense of efficacy stands out as a key predictor of students' academic success, effective classroom management, and the effort invested in implementing innovative teaching strategies (Guskey, 1988; Poulou et al., 2019). According to Bandura (1977), teachers' sense of efficacy, influencing the effort they dedicate to implementing educational innovations, stems from four primary sources: mastery experience (personal success), vicarious experience (inspiration from observing others), verbal persuasion (colleagues' words shaping decisions), and emotional states (how teachers' emotions affect their perceptions of capabilities). These sources collectively contribute to determining the level of teachers' self-efficacy, subsequently influencing their willingness and preparedness to adopt educational innovations.
Numerous studies have indicated that teachers' willingness to embrace change, implement new ideas, and their enthusiasm for incorporating innovative teaching methods are closely linked to their self-efficacy (Tschannen-Moran & Hoy, 2001; Paraskeva et al., 2008; Skaalvik & Skaalvik, 2010; Çobanoğlu, 2011; Kabaoğlu, 2015). This suggests that teachers with a high sense of efficacy have a greater likelihood of succeeding in implementing new educational or curriculum innovations compared to those with a low sense of efficacy (Bray-Clark & Bates, 2003; Margolis & McCabe, 2006; Sehgal et al., 2017). Consequently, the need for an investigation into teachers' efficacy concerning the implementation of educational reforms has become a significant concern for researchers in the field of education.
In recent literature exploring the integration of technology in language education, self-efficacy emerges as a prominent factor influencing various aspects of educators' engagement and acceptance of technology. Wang et al. (2023) conducted a study focusing on Chinese L2 students. Their study revealed that technological self-efficacy significantly predicts technology acceptance, explaining a substantial portion of its variance. Similarly, Wang and Pan (2023) investigated Chinese English as a foreign language (EFL) instructors’ self-efficacy level and its association with their classroom practices. The result of their study demonstrated that teacher self-efficacy notably influences work engagement, surpassing the impact of other factors like resilience.
A study by Zhi et al. (2023) also underscores the significant role of efficacy in technology adoption among Chinese EFL teachers. Through structural equation modeling and regression analysis, they found that self-efficacy significantly predicted a considerable portion of the variance in teachers' technology adoption rates. This emphasis on self-efficacy suggests its pivotal role in shaping educators' attitudes and behaviors towards incorporating technology into language instruction. Collectively, these studies highlight the crucial influence of self-efficacy in driving technological acceptance and adoption within language education contexts. Recognizing the importance of bolstering educators' self-efficacy can offer valuable insights for stakeholders, including teachers, trainers, policymakers, and officials, aiming to enhance technology integration efforts in language learning environments.
Thus, in light of the apprehensions surrounding teachers' resistance to implementing the constructivist teaching philosophy across various educational contexts (Tabulawa, 2013; Zeki & Guneyli, 2014; Muganga & Ssenkusu, 2019), including Ghana, it becomes crucial to comprehend the sense of efficacy among Ghanaian language (GHL) teachers regarding the adoption of constructivist teaching approaches specified in the recently introduced Standards-based Curriculum (SBC) at the elementary education level in Ghana.
2.3 Model Conceptualisation and Hypothesis Development
The study was grounded in the self-efficacy theory of Bandura (1975). As previously discussed, the efficacy theory states that individuals’ perceived confidence regarding the accomplishment of a particular task or the performance of a particular behavior influences their actual practice. Thus, in the context of this study, we hypothesize that language teachers’ practice of social, critical, and cognitive construction would, among other factors, be contingent on their perceived confidence regarding the execution of the aforementioned forms of constructivism. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic representation of the proposed model developed to ascertain the influence of efficacy on the practice of the three forms of constructivism.
Source: Author’s Construct
Practically, this study seeks to achieve the above by statistically testing the following hypotheses:
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Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of cognitive constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching
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Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of social constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching
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Teachers’ efficacy will influence their practice of critical constructivism in Ghanaian language teaching