The United States, China, Brazil, and India are the countries with the fastest-growing plastic markets. In India, the per capita consumption of plastics is approximately 13.6 kg, 59% of which are used solely for packaging purposes (FICCI, 2020). Polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, and polycarbonate are various types of plastics used in food packaging. Among these materials, polycarbonate (PC) is an engineering plastic known for its ability to withstand thermal and mechanical stresses (Hafad et al. 2021). Polycarbonate plastics are widely preferred by consumers and used in many applications due to their versatility in form, colour, shape, mechanical strength, and user-friendliness; hence, they are extensively utilized in the packaging industry. A significant proportion of PC plastics are employed in the food packaging industry, either as polymers or as epoxy resins used as lining materials.
Various studies conducted worldwide have shown that plastic containers can release certain chemicals into food under different conditions, such as cooking, heating, storing, and handling. Chemicals such as dioxins, bisphenol A (BPA), phthalates, and styrene are some of the toxic substances that food may contain if stored in plastics (Muncke et al. 2020; Groh et al. 2021; Kato and Conte-Junior, 2021; Khan et al. 2021; Lerch et al. 2022; Mahlangu et al. 2023). The amount and rate of leaching/migration of such chemicals are largely governed by the temperature and pH of the food, the storage period, the age of the container (new, old, or scratched), and the mode of food processing (Muncke et al. 2020; Alamri et al. 2021; Szabó et al. 2022).
In PC plastics, bisphenol A is one of the essential ingredients added during polymerization. It is well documented that PC plastics can leach BPA, and numerous studies have reported varying concentrations and/or rates of migration of the chemical from PC plastics. There are also reports on the migration of BPA from water containers and various kitchenware. The presence of BPA has been detected migrating from baby feeding bottles, with its concentrations varying from levels that are undetectable up to the nanogram range (Aschberger et al. 2010; Hoekstra & Simoneau, 2013; Shrinithivihahshini et al. 2014; Johnson et al. 2015; de Quirós et al. 2019; Agarwal et al. 2022).
BPA is potentially a significant endocrine-disrupting chemical (EDC) known to contribute to the development of hormonal disorders such as major depressive disorder (MDD), polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS), attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorder (ASD), obesity, cardiovascular diseases, reproductive disorders, and several types of cancer in humans (Abraham and Chakraborty, 2020; Vom Saal and Vandenberg, 2021; Manzoor et al. 2022). The detrimental effects of BPA are primarily attributed to its structural similarity to those of 17-β estradiol, which allows it to interact with estrogen receptors (ERs) or influence estrogen-mediated pathways in other receptors (Maruyama et al. 2013; Mahamuni and Shrinithivihahshini, 2017).
Globally, the incidence of hormone-related disorders and the associated mortality rates are alarmingly high (Lee et al. 2016; Crafa et al. 2021). In India, the incidence of conditions such as infertility, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), thyroid disorders, amenorrhea, hyperprolactinemia, irregular estrous cycles, and contraception issues has been increasing (Krishnamoorthy et al. 2020; Mehreen et al. 2021; Kumar et al. 2024). This increase may be linked to increased exposure to EDCs, including BPA. Several research studies in India have investigated the migration of BPA into food simulants and its presence in environmental samples, highlighting the need for comprehensive assessment and regulation (Shrinithivihahshini et al. 2014; Selvaraj et al. 2014; Agarwal et al. 2015; Kora, 2019; Sharma et al. 2021; Basu et al. 2024).
Previously, various standards devised by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) intended for food contact plastics (listed in Table 1) did not describe any migration tests specifically for BPA. In response to concerns expressed by the scientific community, the BIS drafted a policy in 2013 to standardize the use of BPA in food contact plastics within India (BIS, 2013). In 2017, we highlighted the need for regulations for the use of BPA in food contact plastics (Mahamuni and Shrinithivihahshini, 2017). Unfortunately, the Food Safety and Standards (Packaging) Regulations, 2018, also did not have any specific BPA migration standards but allowed an overall migration limit of 60 mg/kg or 10 mg/dm2 (IS9845, 1998). Recently, BIS has called for the development of standards for the assessment of BPA from various food-intended packaging and kitchenware. To support further decision-making by the BIS, our present study adopted the standard method IS 9845:1998 for testing materials that migrate from food contact plastics, specifically assessing the migration of bisphenol A from selected food contact plastics. Our findings aim not only to influence policy decisions in India but also to contribute valuable insights to the international scientific community regarding BPA migration, exposure, and public health regulations.
Table 1
List of Indian standards on plastics suitable for use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water
BIS Standard | Title |
9845:1998 | Determination of overall migration of constituents of plastics materials and articles intended to come in contact with foodstuffs — Method of analysis (second revision) |
9833:1981 | List of pigments and colourants for use in plastics in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
10141:1982 | Positive list of constituents of polyethylene in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water (1st revision) |
10142:1999 | Polystyrene (crystal and high impact) for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water (first revision) |
10146:1982 | Polyethylene for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
10148:1982 | Positive list of constituents of polyvinyl chloride and its copolymers for safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
10149:1982 | Positive list of constituents of polystyrene (crystal and high impact) in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
10151: 1982 | Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and its copolymers for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
10171: 1999 | Guide on suitability of plastics for food packaging (second revision) |
10909: 2000 | Positive list of constituents polypropylene and its copolymers for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water @rst revision) |
10910:1984 | Polypropylene and its copolymers for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
11434:1985 | Ionomers resins for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
11435:1985 | Positive list of constituents of ionomer resins for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
11704:1986 | Ethylene/acrylic acid (EAA) copolymers for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
11705:1986 | Positive list of constituents of Ethylene/acrylic acid (EAA) copolymers for their safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
12229:1987 | Positive list of constituents of polyalkylene terephthalates (PET & PBT) for their safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
1224’7:1988 | Nylon-6 polymer for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
12248:1988 | Positive list of constituents of Nylon6 polymer for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
12252:1987 | Polyalkylene terephthlates (PET & PBT) for their safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
13449:1992 | Positive list of constituents of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
13576:1992 | Ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA) copolymers and terpolymers for their safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
13577:1992 | Positive list of constituents of ethylene methacrylic acid (EMAA) copolymers and terpolymers in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
13601:1993 | Ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) copolymers for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |
14971: 2001 | Polycarbonate resins for its safe use in contact with foodstuffs, pharmaceuticals and drinking water |