Citation of previously published references is a fundamental component of knowledge-production within all scientific fields of research [1, 2]. Citation of relevant sources is an indicator of a good research practice, as it places researchers’ work in the context of the literature of their field to allow editors, reviewers and readers understand and critically analyze the rationale for why the research was conducted and what the research might add to existing knowledge [3, 4]. Accurate citation of references used during the research process is the most standard procedure for researchers to show their avoidance of plagiarism and to increase their credibility [4]. As citations are also used by evaluation metrics to calculate the academic performance of individuals, institutions, or journals, providing appropriate citation information is a means of giving credit to authors whose works are used (quoted or paraphrased) [5, 6]. However, research results are sometimes cited inaccurately, which can mislead readers, reviewers and editors, and loss of due credits [2, 4, 6].
Inaccurate citation can be broadly divided into two categories: bibliographic errors (i.e., inaccurate bibliographic information, such as spelling mistakes and missing letters in authors’ names or an incorrect publication year), and erroneous quotations (i.e., inconsistencies between an author’s claim and the information in the cited reference or misleading paraphrases) [1, 2]. Factors contributing to such publication of inaccurate citations include, among others, production errors, honest errors, intentional misuse of original information or failed quality control (i.e., weak peer-review and editorial processes) [1, 2]. Although both bibliographic errors and erroneous quotations are problematic, in this study we focus on another type of citation inaccuracy, termed here ‘inconsistent and/or inappropriate citation styles’, arising from adopting non-standard journal citation policies. This type of citation inaccuracy includes requesting citations using author’s first or given name, using different name formats between authors with different cultural backgrounds and using different formats between in the in the ‘in-text citation’ and in the ‘reference list entry’. In addition to its inaccuracy by its own right, this practice also contributes to the well-known unintentional bibliographic errors and its impacts on parties involved in (citing authors, cited authors, readers, reviewers, editors and journal/publishers) the well-known unintentional bibliographic errors and erroneous quotations. Previous studies have investigated the frequency of citation errors, the factors associated with such errors, and the consequences on parties involved in publication [4–6], but to our knowledge, no study has specifically addressed citation inaccuracy driven by inappropriate journal citation policies and the effects of such citation inaccuracies on stakeholders.
The whole process of citation consists of two main parts: citing the source within the body of the text itself – i.e., ‘in-text citations’ –, and compiling all sources in the references or bibliography section – i.e., ‘reference list’ [7, 8]. The academic world utilizes a wide variety of citation styles, each with its own distinct way of presenting information about cited sources. These styles differ in the order and format (including capitalization, punctuation, abbreviations, italics usage, and information arrangement) used for both in-text citations and reference lists [7, 8]. Despite this difference, the different citation styles, typically, follow one of three basic systems: author-date citation, numerical citation, and note citation [8, 9]. In the author-date citation system, in the text body the cited source is indicated usually by the author’s last name and the publication date in parentheses, which corresponds to an entry in the reference list. Examples of commonly known citation styles following the ‘author-date’ citation system include the American Psychological Association (APA) style, Modern Language Association (MLA) style and Harvard citation style [8, 9]. In the numerical system, which is used in the Vancouver and the National Library of Medicine (NLM) citation styles, citations in the in-text are indicated by numbers in brackets or in superscript and the numbered references are given in the referene list [9]. In note citation system, such as the Bluebook and Chicago (Turabian) notes and bibliography, in-text citations are indicated with a numberical superscript or symbol, and a corresponding full citation included in a footnote or endnote [9]. It should be noted that, in all the three citation systems, authors’ names are mentioned outside parenthesis or brackets in narrative in-text citation, i.e., when referring to a work or introducing a quote that intertwines the author as part of the sentence [8, 9]. Based on the preceding explanation, it is clear that, in the author-date citation system, authors’ names, along with year of publication, are the essential link between in-text citations and reference lists, while reference numbers are the links in journals following the numerical and note citation systems [8, 9]. As a rule of thumb, the whole section of reference is compiled alphabetically in order of the author’s last name or full names, depending on the type of format used in the in-text citation, and in numerical order in journals following numeric citation system. Abiding by this rule facilitates ease locating and retrieval of materials, which, in turn, enables reviewers and readers to evaluate the adequacy, relevance and trustworthiness of the materials used and findings of the study [6].
The relevance of adapting the above standard citation styles by publishers has been stressed in standard guidelines developed by different disciplines, institutions, and professions for the design, conducting and reporting of research [10–13]. ‘Citation standards’ have been considered as one key component of the standard guidelines [10–13]. The citation standards guideline dictates, among others, adopting appropriate citation style that is aligned with international standard, uniformity/consistency of citation style (for all sources cited, between in-text citation and reference list), and providing complete information about each source cited [6, 10, 13]. Most importantly, journal publishers are expected to reflect citation standards in their author guidelines [6, 13]. Despite these efforts, inaccurate citation of references has still been a continuing problem in journal publications, due to intentional and unintentional reasons and/or inappropriate citation policies, which can have undesirable consequences to all parties involved in publications [1, 2]. In this study, we aimed at determining the prevalence of citation inaccuracies caused by inappropriate citation policies in Ethiopian journals and its effects on stakeholders.
Recent decades have seen a steadily increase in the number of Ethiopian scholars engaged in scientific research and number of peer-reviewed scientific journals just from 23 before 2000 to 73 journals as of today [14]. This progress coincides with the growing number of universities, from just two universities until 1991 to over 30 universities today [14, 15]. Consequently, the number of research outputs and international visibility and citations of their publications have been showing growing trends [15, 16]. While Ethiopian sholars publish a great many publications in Ethiopian journals, the qualities of research products published by Ethiopian researchers in such journals, remain questionable. This is evident in the country’s low annual citation numbers compared to global averages [15, 17]. Additionally, only a small number of Ethiopian journals (five) are indexed in the prestigious Scopus database, including the Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Ethiopia, Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences, Ethiopian Medical Journal, and Ethiopian Pharmaceutical Journal [14]. Although the major challenges underpinning the quality and impacts of Ethiopian journals at international level are primarily underpinned by low capacity, poor infrastructure and limited resoures and funding [14, 15], publication and dissemination practices associated with the unique Ethiopian patronymic naming system have also been found to be other detrimental contributing factors [16, 18].
Ethiopian patronymic naming system, which does not match that of the widespread “Given Name – Family Name” pattern in the Western world, has led to highly inconsistent and often inappropriate citation formats applied when citing Ethiopian authors in many academic journals published in Ethiopia (hereafter referred to as Ethiopian journals) [16, 18]. In administrative contexts (e.g., at the immigration office, university and official documents), Ethiopian citizens, irrespective of their linguistic, ethnic and religious background [16], are officially identified and addressed by their “given name”, “personal name “or “first name”(hereafter referred to as “first name”), which is followed by their “father’s name” (patronym), or “middle name” (hereafter referred to as “middle name”), and by their “paternal grandfather’s name” (avonym) ), “father’s father’s name”, “last name”, or “surname” (hereafter referred to as “last name”) [16, 18]. In publications, most scholars use their first two names – i.e., first name and middle name, in which case the middle name is interperated as the author’s last name –, while some others use the three-name sequence. In citations, however, Ethiopian authors are variably quoted by their First Name, Last Name (i.e., Father’s name in a two-name sequence, or a Grandfather’s Name in a three-name sequence), or by Full Name (i.e., a two-name or three-name sequence). A citation using author’s last name or full name is not problematic as long as it adheres to the target journal’s citation style requirements. The problem, however, is the inconsistent and, sometimes, inappropriate citation formats used for Ethiopian authors in many journals published in Ethiopia. As experienced authors, reviewers and readers of articles published in Ethiopian journals, we often come across three major issues associated with citation of Ethiopian authors. These issues are inconsistent citation formats between Ethiopian authors and non-Ethiopian authors, inconsistent citation between in the ‘in-text citation’ and/or ‘reference listing’ formats for Ethiopian authors, and inappropriate citation format for Ethiopian authors due to citation using author’s first name.
Awareness on the confusions, arising from the unique patronymic naming convention, in citing Ethiopian authors and its potential effects on authors among members of the scientific and librarian communities have been raised by some authors [16, 18, 19]. This problem is particularly considered as a serious issue with indexing and cataloguing in libraries and online archives, and consequently issues of information access and receiving due credit [16]. For example, fitting citations of Ethiopian authors using their first name to “standard” name-based literature-indexing systems and associated tools (e.g., style manuals, bibliography software, and search engines) is impossible as most templates available are rigidly defined in the western format in which citations are usually made using author’s last name [20]. This can prevent or cause delayed the discovery of published works from Ethiopian authors to an unknown extent, thereby limiting the effectiveness of search tools and compromising the advance of communications [20]. Moreover, on a personal level, variant and erroneous forms of names make it difficult to attribute publications to Ethiopian authors unequivocally and to determine where and how often they are cited and what the impact of their work is. Furthermore, the adoption of inconsistent citation formats for Ethiopian authors can pose practical challenges that in turn hinder promotion of scientific ethics, including research integrity and transparency, and can adversely impact scientific performance indicators of stakeholders (citing authors, cited authors and publishers) [4, 16, 18]. Thus, understanding the prevalence of inconsistent or inappropriate citation policies and whether such journals with inconsistent citation policies, relative to journals with consistent and/or appropriate citation policies, would pose higher practical challenges, including compliance with their citation policies, and adverse consequences on stakeholders is important to editors to make informed decisions on what policy changes are required. However, no attempt has been made to assess the prevalence and actual and potential consequences of anomalous citation styles within Ethiopian journals. The objectives of this study were to (1) determine the prevalence of journals’ policies requesting inconsistent citation formats (in the in-text citation and reference listing) between Ethiopian authors and non-Ethiopian authors, (2) determine prevalence of journals’ policies requesting inconsistent citation format between in the in-text citation and reference listing for citing Ethiopian authors and non-Ethiopian authors, and (3) evaluate the consequences of such inconsistent citation formats in policy on publication practices and parties involved in publication.