Exploring Airborne Pollutants in Fitness Environments: Implications for Health and Exercise

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4401922/v1

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Exploring Airborne Pollutants in Fitness Environments: Implications for Health and Exercise

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4401922/v1

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As there are many known benefits of physical activities practising, the need to evaluate pollution levels and personal exposure in different sports environments has become increasingly important. However, the current data are limited, namely those related to exposure levels during different types of sports activities. Thus, this study estimated indoor air levels and inhalation doses of gaseous (total volatile organic compounds – TVOCs, CO₂) and particulate (PM₁₀, PM_2.5, and ultrafine – 20-1000 nm) pollutants during highly–intense (spinning, dance fitness, and total body workout - TBW) and moderately–intense (body & mind, muscle group-specific and self-defence techniques) groups activities (n = 138). Inhalation dose was assessed using the USEPA methodology, considering different age categories of practitioners (3 – <61 years old) and genders. The results showed that CO₂ concentrations ranged from 1368 mg/m³ (in TBW) -2727 mg/m³ (self-defence-adults), with the protection threshold being exceeded in adult self-defence classes. TVOCs exceeded 4–18 times the protective limits in all classes (2.49 mg/m³ in body & mind – 10.62 mg/m³ in self-defence adults). Across different characterized activities, PM values widely varied (PM₁₀: 20.8–220.8 µg/m³; PM_2.5: 9.1–63.5 µg/m³; UFP: 6267–9917 #/cm³) with especially PM₁₀ higher during vigorous human movements; 1.1–4.4 and 1.1–2.5 times exceeding the protective threshold for PM₁₀ and PM_2.5, respectively. High-intensity classes resulted in 1.4–1.6 times higher inhalation doses than moderate-intensity classes and the total inhaled dose for men was higher (1–8% in high- and moderate-intensity, respectively) than for women. Finally, the inhaled doses by the child population were up to 2.2 times higher than of adults of both genders. It needs to be emphasized that inhaled dose values indirectly indicate the possible health risk to which users are exposed in terms of pollutant intake (particulate matter and gaseous pollutants), combining exposure concentration, physical effort and duration of activity.

Indoor air

gaseous pollutants

particulate matter (PMX)

fitness activity

risks

health clubs

exposure dose

Physical activity yields numerous social, health, and economic benefits (WHO 2018). Investing in policies that promote physical activity can significantly contribute to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Sports play a pivotal role in society, and their relevance for our society has been recently emphasized; in some form, they are linked to 13 (out of 17) of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (WHO 2018). Moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity has been consistently associated with various health benefits, such as improved stress regulation, reduced all-cause mortality, and lower risks of cardiovascular disease, obesity, stroke, and cancer (Bakker et al. 2021; Chekroud et al. 2018; Moore et al. 2016; Newsom et al. 2021; Rutten-Jacobs et al. 2018; Zhao et al. 2020). Moreover, physical exercise has been shown to enhance self-esteem and self-confidence, and to have positive effects in managing depression and anxiety (Chen et al. 2020; Nyenhuis et al. 2020; Rubin and Wessely 2020). The World Health Organization recommends a minimum level of 2.5 hours (150 minutes) of moderate-intensity aerobic physical activity per week for adults along with muscle-strengthening activities involving the main muscle groups be performed two or more days per week (Eurostat 2022; WHO 2020). However, compliance with these recommendations remains relatively low across the EU, with only 13.6% of people meeting them in 2019, and a majority of EU Member States falling below 10%. Analysis by gender further reveals that a higher percentage of men (16.1%) meet these requirements compared to women (11.3%) (Eurostat, 2022). Age plays a significant role in sports participation, with compliance decreasing as age increases (Eurostat 2022).

Health clubs (HC) represent a unique indoor microenvironment where individuals engage in different-intensity physical activities. The pollution of these indoor spaces essentially comes from human presence and activities carried out by them (Kozielska et al. 2020; Salonen et al. 2020). Health-relevant pollutants (Andrade et al. 2017; Andrade and Dominski 2018), such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs), have been associated with emissions from personal care or cleaning products and from specific equipment to support the carried-out sports activities (Finewax et al. 2020; You et al. 2022). Moreover, VOCs are involved in several photochemical reactions that produce harmful and toxic products; they can cause serious health effects, as many of them exhibit toxic, carcinogenic, mutagenic, or neurotoxic properties (Finewax et al. 2021; You et al. 2022). Further, particulate matter (PM) has been linked with occupants exercising in indoor sports facilities, which can negatively affect physical health (i.e., particle penetration and deposition in the alveoli; Choi et al. 2023; Maung et al. 2022; Voliotis et al. 2021; Xu et al. 2018). It needs to be though emphasized that the majority of the current data come from educational sports settings (schools and university gyms; Andrade and Dominski 2018; Peixoto et al. 2023; Slezakova et al. 2018a,b). Information from fitness and HC is less available, as well as data on PM specific fractions such as are ultrafine particles. Compared to PM_2.5, ultrafine particles can cause more inflammation and retained longer lungs, from which they can essentially translocate to all organs (Schraufnagel 2020). During exercising, lung deposition of air pollutants increases by 4.5-fold due to heightened deposition fraction and minute ventilation (Daigle et al. 2003; Dwivedi et al. 2023; Lee et al. 2023; Rahman et al. 2022, 2024; Velasco et al. 2019). Furthermore, increased mouth breathing may bypass the nasal filtration mechanism, leading to higher airflow velocity that carries more pollutants to the lower respiratory tract (Lee et al. 2023; Rahman et al. 2022, 2024). While information on indoor air pollution in sports facilities exists (Blocken et al. 2021; Finewax et al. 2020; Peixoto et al. 2023; Ramos et al. 2015; Slezakova et al. 2018a,b), information concerning the inhaled dose of pollutants in sports facilities/HC is scarce (Borghi et al. 2021), requiring a better understanding of the pollution and respective exposure levels namely during different sports activities and across several age categories (including susceptible groups such as children).

Thus, this study aims to evaluate the exposure to particulate and gaseous pollutants during physical activities. Specifically, the work assessed levels of particulate matter (PM₁₀, PM_2.5, down to ultrafine –UFP; size range of 20-1000 nm) and gaseous pollutants (TVOCs and CO₂) in indoor air during different group sports classes (n = 138). The respective inhalation exposures for the practitioners were estimated based on their activity type and intensity, by gender, and different age categories, including children.

2.1 Study description

The exposure assessment during the fitness group classes was conducted across a total of 24 studios in 10 different HC in 2020–2021 that belonged to a chain of low-cost fitness brands in Portugal. The study location, Oporto, has the second-largest concentration of HC (accounting for around 18% of the country total). Specifically in 2021, 465600 Portuguese subjects attended annually various HC, with conventional gyms being the most common type (representing 84% of the sample; Pedragosa et al. 2022) and low-cost fitness club chains compose half of these gyms. Women comprise the majority of gym-goers (53%), with ages ranging from 4 years to over 65 years; adults aged 31 to 64 represent 50% of attendees.

The most relevant characteristics of all analysed indoor spaces are summarized in Tables 1, S1. In general, the HC studios were equipped with similar ventilation systems, which primarily included either a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system (n = 6) or a combination of HVAC with natural ventilation (n = 4). Specific occupancy measures were adapted during the sampling, with regulated occupancy to ensure appropriate distancing (a minimum of 3 m distance between the subjects) and strict hygiene protocols for space / equipment cleaning (before and after each class/equipment use). Among the HC included in the study, group classes were particularly popular, with 40–50% of attendees participating exclusively in them. Based on the data provided by the respective fitness chain, the most popular activities classes include spinning, Pilates (body & mind), Krav Maga, body specific training, dance, and muscle group-specific (MGS) classes.

Table 1

General characterization of the indoor spaces.
	Multi-functional group classes studios n = 15	Spinning classes studios n = 9
Area (m²): Mean (min – max)	127.8 (72–260)	75.2 (61–98)
Height (m): Mean (min – max)	3.7 (2.7–6.6)	4.04 (2.6–5.7)
Volume (m³): Mean (min – max)	472.9 (194.4–1716)	303.8 (158.6–558.6)
Ventilation (%)	HVAC: 80 HVAC + natural ventilation: 20	HVAC: 78 HVAC + natural ventilation: 22
Existence of windows	47.4%	11.1%
Position in building (%)	1st floor: 33.3 ground floor: 33.3 basement: 33.3	1st floor: 44.4 ground floor: 11.1 basement: 44.4
Building main construction materials	Brick, concrete, plasterboard, wood, glass, mirrors, wall paint, polypropylene tiles, rubber, sheet metal.	Brick, concrete, plasterboard, wood, glass, mirrors, wall paint, polypropylene tiles, sheet metal.
Flooring materials	Polypropylene tiles + rubber	Polypropylene tiles + wood

2.2 Group classes characterization

Indoor air monitoring was conducted across a total of 138 group classes. These classes were categorized based on their activity type and intensity, resulting in six distinct categories. High-intensity modalities encompassed: (i) spinning, which involved rigorous exercises performed on stationary bicycles; (ii) dance fitness classes, which combined elements of aerobic activity with dance styles such as salsa, zumba, hip-hop, or other popular dance forms; and (iii) total body workout (TBW) classes that integrated both intense cardio cardiovascular exercises and strength training in choreographed routines, also using additional equipment (dumbbells, resistance bands, trampolines, etc.). Moderate-intensity group classes activities comprised of: (i) body & mind classes with a focus on postural correction and joint mobility, such as yoga and Pilates (note that some sessions incorporated scented candles and aromatherapy diffusers to promote a tranquil and relaxing atmosphere); (ii) MGS classes that targeted the development and toning of specific body parts (exercises were performed at varying heights, often at floor); and (iii) self-defence techniques, namely Krav Maga, which focused on hand-to-hand combat techniques and were suitable for both children (aged 4 to 14) and adults. Groups classes participations and the comfort parameters are summarized in Table 2.

Table 2

Groups class participations and comfort parameters (temperature and relative humidity) across 138 group classes.
Groups activity class	Number of subjects Mean (min – max)	Area occupancy subject/m² Mean (min – max)	Comfort parameters
Groups activity class	Number of subjects Mean (min – max)	Area occupancy subject/m² Mean (min – max)	T (ºC)	RH (%)
Spinning	8 (2–12)	0.11 (0.03–0.19)	19.9 (15.0–24.5)	65.6 (48.9–85.2)
Total body workout	6 (1–11)	0.05 (0.01–0.13)	21.2 (14.8–25.1)	62.8 (49.8–81.1)
Dance fitness	7 (3–15)	0.07 (0.02–0.17)	21.3 (17.2–25.4)	64.8 (46.3–82.8)
Body & mind	6 (2–12)	0.06 (0.01–0.17)	21.0 (16.3–26.1)	62.3 (47.3–85.0)
Muscle group-specific	5 (1–12)	0.05 (0.01–0.17)	21.6 (16.1–26.1)	64.4 (51.2–87.0)
Self-defence – adults	12 (10–14)	0.11 (0.09–0.12)	23.2 (23.0–23.4)	66.0 (62.3–68.3)
Self-defence – kids	8 (6–10)	0.09 (0.07–0.12)	20.9 (17.9–23.2)	66.2 (57.8–73.9)

2.3 Air pollutant monitoring

The sampling protocol was previously described in detail elsewhere (Peixoto et al. 2023). Briefly, during each session, PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ fractions were continuously monitored by Light-house Handheld particle counter (model 3016 IAQ; Lighthouse Worldwide Solutions, Fremont, USA). Ultrafine particles (UFP, size range of 20-1000 nm) were monitored with TSI P-Trak™ condensation particle counter sampler, model UP 8525 (TSI Inc., MN, USA. Gaseous pollutants (CO₂ and TVOCs) and thermal comfort parameters (temperature – T; relative humidity – RH) were sampled by a multi-parametric probe, GrayWolf Sensing Solutions, model TG 502 (GrayWolf Sensing Solutions, Shelton, USA) (accuracy ± 2% reading for TVOCs; ±3% reading for CO₂). Data acquisition interval of 1 minute was utilized for all pollutants, resulting in a comprehensive dataset comprising a total of 34500 measurements.

2.4 Inhalation dose calculations

Inhalation dose was determined according to the previous methodology (Cunha-Lopes et al. 2019; Faria et al. 2020; USEPA 2009; Xu et al. 2018) as the following:\(Dose \left(D\right)=\left(\frac{IR}{BW}\right)\times Ci\times t \left(1\right)\)

where D is age-specific dose (µg/kg and particle number/ kg for UFP); C represents an average concentration of a pollutant i in the respective spaces (µg/L); t is the duration of the activity (min); IR is the age-specific inhalation rate (L/min); and BW represents participant’s body weight (kg). Gender-, age-, and activities-depended inhalation rates were retrieved from U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Exposure Handbook (USEPA 2011), considering the following age groups for children (4 to < 6; 6 to < 11; and 11 to 14 years old) and adults (16 to < 21; 21 to < 31; 31 to < 41; 41 to < 51; and 51 to < 61 years). Portuguese population body weight parameters specific to the Portuguese population were used (Monteiro 2019). To estimate the inhalation doses the parameters were used based on high-intensity activities and moderate-intensity activities, as defined above. Finally, the time duration of classes was 50 minutes. For readers convenience further information on inhalation dose exposure as well as parameters used are summarized in Supplementary material file (Text S1, Table S2).

2.5 Statistical analysis

All data were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistical analysis using Microsoft Excel (Microsoft 365 MSO) and Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (IBM SPSS Statistics, version 28). The samples from the studied population were independent and data normality was verified using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test (n > 30). Having verified a non-normal distribution of data, non-parametric tests, the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples, was used to compare pollutant concentrations between activities of different intensities. The relationships between pollutants were analysed using Spearman correlation coefficients. All analyses were performed using the statistical significance level p < 0.05.

3.1 Concentration levels of the indoor pollutants

The concentrations of all characterized pollutants during six distinct group activities are shown in Fig. 1 (a–e); Tables S3-S4 present the statistics of all data. Regarding the gaseous pollutants, the results showed that levels and the distributions of CO₂ (Fig. 1a) highly varied among the different classes. Particularly intensive activities such as spinning or fitness dance exhibited markedly elevated CO₂ concentrations, reaching maxima levels as high as 6323 and 6780 mg/m³. However, the mean CO₂ concentrations, estimated for each type of group class, were within a range of 1368 mg/m³ (TBW) to 2727 mg/m³ (self-defence adults), generally aligning with the recommended threshold of 2250 mg/m³ for indoor air quality in public buildings (Ordinance No. 138-G/2021). Notably, self-defence classes for adult population (mean of 2720 mg/m³) was the only activity which the mean CO₂ surpassed the required threshold, most likely due to the higher-class occupancy (Table 2), in agreement with other studies (Andrade et al. 2018a; Ramos et al. 2015; Slezakova et al. 2018a). For TVOCs, more concerning results were obtained. The mean TVOCs (Fig. 1b) ranged between 2.49 mg/m³ (body & mind) and 10.62 mg/m³ (self-defence for adults; 3.49 mg/m³ for kids). It is noteworthy that the protective thresholds (600 µg/m³) were exceeded by a significant margin (4–18 times) in all activity types. These results indicate that further identification of the individual VOCs is required to better identify the respective emission sources and compounds origin. While the information on VOCs during the specific physical activities is very limited, these results align with previous studies indicating the potential influence of cleaning and personal hygiene products (Claflin et al. 2021; Finewax et al. 2020; You et al. 2022), as well as human occupancy (i.e., by-products of human metabolism, breath and perspiration; Costello et al. 2014; Coffaro and Weisel 2022; Deng et al. 2022; Liu et al. 2015; Tang et al. 2016). In addition, the use of fitness equipment such as protective and support mat (e.g. utilized in self-defence classes), has been related with the emissions of VOCs due to the materials’ compositions (Claflin et al. 2021; Finewax et al. 2020; You et al. 2022).

For particulate matter (Figs. 1c, d), means and the distribution were statistically different across the six activity categories (p < 0.05). The mean PM₁₀ ranged between 20.8 µg/m³ (TBW) – 220.8 µg/m³ (self-defence kids), while the corresponding PM_2.5 means were between 9.1 µg/m³ (TBW) – 63.5 µg/m³ (self-defence adults). The results showed that the highest PM₁₀ were observed in classes with vigorous human movements, namely self-defence (178.4 µg/m³, 220.8 µg/m³: both adults and kids), spinning (53.3 µg/m³) and dancing (52.2 µg/m³); all of which exceeded 1.1 to 4.4 times the respective protection threshold (50 µg/m³; Ordinance No. 138-G/2021). Similarly, for PM_2.5, self-defence (63.5 µg/m³, 63.4 µg/m³: both adults and kids), spinning (27.6 µg/m³), dances (24.5 µg/m³) but also body & mind (27.1 µg/m³) surpassed 1.1 to 2.5 times the protective threshold of PM_2.5 of 25 µg/m³. Both PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 were positively correlated with the type of different activity (Spearman correlation coefficients r_s =0.410–0.984; Table S5). The indoor PM concentrations are essentially influenced by human occupancy (Slezakova et al. 2018b; Xie et al. 2021; Zhang et al. 2022) and type of activities conducted (Alves et al. 2014; Ramos et al. 2014; Qian et al. 2014; Slezakova et al. 2018a; Zitnik et al. 2016), but also by the type and frequency of ventilation (Blocken et al. 2021; Loupa et al. 2007; Montgomery et al. 2015). The highest ranges of both PM fractions were registered during the self-defence classes for adults and children population, which at the same time notably exhibited low contribution of fine particles (PM_2.5: 19–48% of total PM) coarse fraction PM_> 2.5−10 accounted for 52–81% (Table S5). These data are in agreement with the existing literature regarding PM exposure during martial arts or self-defence activities, which is particularly scarce (Torkmahalleh et al. 2018). On contrary to all other activities, during martial sessions participants stored their personal belongings (including backpacks, clothing, and shoes) directly in studios thus possibly leading to ambient coarse dust infiltrations (El Orch et al. 2014; Kearney et al. 2014; Leppänen et al. 2020; Morawska et al. 2013; Yuan et al. 2023); additionally, the use of specific materials (such as protective equipment and mats, tatami) led to higher coarse dust resuspensions (Torkmahalleh et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2021; Yuan et al. 2023). It is important to note that increased physical intensity during exercise leads to higher deposition of PM in the respiratory tract, thereby possibly amplifying the adverse health effects of this pollutant (Braniš et al. 2011; Buonanno et al. 2012; Slezakova et al. 2018b). Therefore, maintaining suitable indoor air quality becomes essential to guarantee healthy and comfortable conditions for all the users (Hodas et al. 2016; WHO 2018; WHO 2020). Finally, the use of aromatherapy diffusers during yoga classes (to create a relaxing environment) resulted in high PM exposure (PM_2.5 accounted for 56–72% of PM₁₀ with concentrations up to 109.47 µg/m³ for PM_2.5; r_s=0.984).

The mean UFP were between 6267 #/cm³ (in self-defence kids) and 9917 #/cm³ (during spinning). The results in Fig. 1e demonstrate that mean UFP were not statistically different (p > 0.05) though the UFP distribution varied between the different activities (up to 36650 #/cm³ and 28955 #/cm³ in intense and moderate activities, respectively). No significant differences in UFP levels were observed for high- and moderate-intensity classes. Typically, UFP are linked with the indoor environment chemistry materials (Azimi et al. 2014; El Orch et al. 2014; Jeong et al. 2023; Kearney et al. 2014; Marval and Tronville 2022; Nazaroff 2023); room occupancy rates and the existence of specific activities or products that can act as potential sources of secondary aerosols (Weschler 2011). However, similarly to previous studies (Peixoto et al. 2023; Slezakova et al. 2018b), no specific primary sources of UFP were identified; activities conducted in the respective indoor spaces were rather similar, both in terms of physical conditions and occupancy (Tables 1–2).

3.2 Inhalation doses

The estimated values of total inhalations doses to all pollutants during different activity types are summarized in Fig. 2a-c.

For the male gender, the means of inhaled dose (per inhaled pollutant) varied between the different age groups and the activity types as the following: 32375–74240 µg/kg for CO₂, 57.60–209.16 µg/kg for TVOCs, 0.35–2.26 µg/kg for PM_> 2.5−10 and 0.33–1.25 µg/kg for PM_2.5 (Tables S6, S7). For females, the corresponding ranges were 30068–73349 µg/kg for CO₂, 45.48–194.26 µg/kg for TVOCs, 0.32–2.10 µg/kg for PM_> 2.5−10 and 0.32–1.16 µg/kg for PM_2.5 (Tables S6, S7). Regarding the UFP (Tables S8, S9; Figure S1), across both genders mean inhalation doses were in a range of 138–330 #/kg for men and 128–350 #/kg for women. These results showed that in agreement with the previous study (Cui et al. 2024; Ramos et al. 2015), CO₂ was the greatest contributor (99.6–99.9%; Fig. 2a), to the total inhaled dose (32433–74340 µg/kg for males; 30114–73448 µg/kg) for female being followed by TVOCs (0.13–0.39%), while PM_> 2.5−10 and PM_2.5, respectively accounted for 0.001–0.004% and 0.001–0.002% of the total dose. Although PM contribution to total dose was low, its deposition in the airways may increases 6- to 10-fold during the high-intensity exercise (Marmett et al. 2020) thus causing possible risks; short-term exposure to PM_2.5 has been associated with greater airway and systemic inflammation and reduced lung function (Xu et al. 2018). In addition, the form (nasal or oral breathing) and the depth of inhalation is relevant (Guo et al. 2020). While exercising, oral breathing with deeper inspiration generally predominates, which can result in a greater deposition of pollutants in the lungs during sports activity (Guo et al. 2020).

The results showed that high-intensity classes resulted in 1.4–1.6 times higher inhaled doses than moderate-intensity classes (Fig. 2a), mainly due to increased ventilation (Cui et al. 2024; Lathouwers et al. 2021; Marmett et al. 2020, 2021; Ramos et al. 2015; Velasco et al. 2019). Dance fitness class led to the highest exposures (male gender: 74340 µg/kg; female gender: 73448 µg/kg) while the lowest ones were obtained during body & mind (male gender: 32433 µg/kg; female gender: 30114 µg/kg). The dose of pollutants inhaled not only depends on the concentration of each pollutant and exposure time but also varies based on gender and age (USEPA 2009). Figure 2a illustrates that, on average, males tend to inhale higher doses of pollutants compared to females. Specifically, in moderate-intensity scenarios, the total inhaled dose for men was 8% higher than for women, whereas in high-intense scenarios, the gender-difference was approximately 1%. This trend was attributed to a greater inspiratory load in males (Guo et al. 2020), while women may experience greater limitations in expiratory flow and exert more effort to breathe (Guo et al. 2020; Harms et al. 2006). Conversely, in the age groups of 16 to < 21 and 21 to < 31 years, the total inhaled dose was higher for women than for men, most likely due to differences in respiratory physiology, ventilation rates, and hormone levels. In activities of greater intensity and effort, reproductive hormones (estrogen and progesterone) influence ventilation and lung function (Harms et al. 2006; Ramos et al. 2015); changes in hormone levels during different stages of the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and menopause can also affect respiratory mechanics and gas exchange (Harms et al. 2006). As individuals age, there is often a decrease in the inhaled dose due to improved efficiency of breathing and oxygen uptake; however, this trend may vary depending on the intensity and type of activity. However, 1.01–1.19 times higher doses were observed for young (16–21 years old) than older adults.

Finally, considering the child population (Figs. 2c, S2, Tables S10, S11), the inhaled doses were up to 2.17–2.19 times higher than of adult females and males, respectively, resulting from the high concentrations observed during the respective classes. Children are at enlarged risk due to their increased inhaled rates (i.e., children’s physiologic needs for more air per kilogram of body weight compared with adults) coupled with increased vulnerability (Madureira et al. 2020; Voliotis et al. 2021).

Performing physical activity in environments with polluted air has negative consequences for the health of susceptible populations (Giles and Koehle 2014; Sinharay et al. 2018; Tainio et al. 2021), with the higher infection risk for the population that practices higher intensity exercises (Andrade et al. 2018b; Cui et al. 2024). Nevertheless, it needs to be emphasized that for environments with air pollution above the protection threshold, light to moderate exercise still has positive health benefits (Schraufnagel et al. 2019; Tainio et al. 2016, 2021). However, for long-term exposure, the negative effects on health then could be considerable, emphasising the necessity to optimize indoor air quality in the sport and HC environment (Cui et al. 2024).

Understanding pollutant sources and distributions in fitness settings is crucial to mitigating health risks associated with indoor air pollution. The results showed significant variations in indoor air exposure across different group physical activities. For gaseous pollutants, CO₂ levels and distributions varied greatly with high-intensity activities like spinning and fitness dance recording notably elevated concentrations. The protection limits of TVOCs (600 µg/m³) were exceeded 4 to 18 times in all types of group class activities, indicating that the characterization of individual VOCs is necessary to identify the sources of emission and origin of the compounds. The results showed that the highest PM fractions were observed in activities with vigorous human movements, with the highest PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 recorded in self-defence classes (adults and children). However, the respective contribution of PM_2.5 was lower (ranging from 19–48% of Total PM); yoga classes resulted in elevated PM_2.5 abundance (ranging from 56–72%), primarily due to the utilization of aromatherapy diffusers.

While the importance of indoor activity in sports venues and health clubs has gained more scientific attention in recent years, there is still limited information on the respective exposures (Borghi et al. 2021). Physical activity increases pollutant inhalation doses, with high-intensity activities resulting in higher exposures compared to moderate-intensity ones. Men generally inhaled higher doses (moderate intensity: 8%; high intensity: 1%) than women, while children exhibited elevated inhalation exposures (2.17–2.19 times higher than of adults), emphasizing their susceptibility. CO₂ contributed significantly to total inhalation doses, followed by TVOCs, emphasizing the importance of monitoring these pollutants in sports facilities. Although PM constituted a low fraction of total inhalation doses, its potential for health impacts requires further attention, namely to health-relevant fine and ultrafine particles.

Funding

The author(s) declare financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was financially supported through projects LA/P/0045/2020 (DOI:10.54499/LA/P/0045/2020) (ALiCE), UIDP/00511/2020 (DOI:10.54499/UIDP/00511/2020) - UIDB/00511/2020 (DOI: 10.54499/UIDB/00511/2020) (LEPABE), UIDB/50006/2020 (DOI:10.54499/UIDB/50006/2020) - UIDP/50006/2020 (DOI:10.54499/UIDP/50006/2020) and LA/P/0008/2020 (DOI:10.54499/ LA/P/0008/2020) (REQUIMTE) from the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia (FCT)/Ministério da Ciência, Tecnologia e Ensino Superior (MCTES). Additional funding was provided by PCIF/SSO/0017/2018 (DOI:10.54499/PCIF/SSO/0017/2018) FCT through national funds. CP would like to acknowledge FCT for her fellowship SFRH/BD/147185/2019.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Author contributions

Cátia Peixoto: Conceptualization, Methodology, Formal analysis, Data curation, writing-Original draft. Maria do Carmo Pereira: Writing–review and editing. Simone Morais: Writing–review, Supervision, Funding acquisition, Klara Slezakova: Conceptualization, Critical revision, Methodological quality, Supervision, Writing-Original draft, Writing–review and editing.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval: Not applicable.

Consent to participate: Not applicable.

Consent for publication: Not applicable

Conflict of interests: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper

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Exploring Airborne Pollutants in Fitness Environments: Implications for Health and Exercise

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Study description

2.2 Group classes characterization

2.3 Air pollutant monitoring

2.4 Inhalation dose calculations

2.5 Statistical analysis

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Concentration levels of the indoor pollutants

3.2 Inhalation doses

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Supplementary Files

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Version 1