The aim of our study was to identify the motivations of PWPD participating in MREs in relation to their sex, age, time since injury/illness, and manner of locomotion during running. Participants reported self-esteem, psychological coping, and health orientation as their primary motivations for running, all seemingly driven by their need for autonomy [34]. The results also validate the widespread belief that PWPD engage in sports to enhance their fitness, thereby improving their daily living activities and ability to manage life challenges. All categories of motives examined exhibited mean values above the midpoint of the scale, confirming that the sports motivations of PWPD are multidimensional.
Our results are partially consistent with previous findings in this area: health reasons were identified as the most important motivations for practicing sport in wheelchair basketball players [23], wheelchair athletes participating in triathlons [17], Dutch Paralympic athletes [35] and athletes playing boccia [19]. It is important to note that, in addition to the motivations assessed for participating in MRE, another significant factor is the level of engagement, which varies from recreational to competitive to elite. For many runners, mass running is no longer a mere physical activity but a lifestyle, shaping their social relationships and improving their quality of life and mental well-being. Since many people report their need to break down their mental barriers and improve their self-esteem, our research group attached great importance to running as a means to improve self-esteem and a psychological coping mechanism.
In our study, we found no difference in the motivations between female and male runners with disabilities. This contrasts with the findings by Zhou et al. [36], which suggested that male and female runners in China have differing motives for engaging in sports. A similar study on the motivations of elite wheelchair athletes from the United States, Great Britain, and Japan indicated sex differences in motivational factors like friendship, achievement, and status [22], with the most pronounced differences observed between male and female Japanese athletes. Furthermore, our findings diverge from those of previous studies on the motivations of able-bodied runners. For instance, León-Guereño et al. [37] noted that male amateur runners focused more on personal goal achievement and competition when participating in marathons, whereas female amateur runners emphasized psychological coping. Greek female marathon runners also reported a higher importance placed on psychological coping, personal goal achievement, and self-esteem compared to their male counterparts [37]. Additionally, an American study conducted twenty-five years ago found distinct motivational differences between genders, with concerns such as weight, affiliation, self-esteem, life meaning, and psychological coping being more significant for women [38]. Studies have consistently shown such gender differences in motivations across various types of MRE and populations, including goal orientation, ego-related goals, weight concerns, affiliation, and self-esteem [3, 9, 12, 39].
According to SDT, studies on runners without disabilities indicate that women usually report running motives connected to the need for relatedness and autonomy, whereas men report motives related to their need for competence. It is puzzling why the respondents with disabilities in our study did not report these gendered differences. As we mentioned earlier, the SDT postulates that environmental factors responsible for the satisfaction of three key needs (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) produce self-determined motivational consequences. Therefore, it is likely that the specific environmental challenges faced by PWPD made our respondents attach greater importance to motives that stem from their need for autonomy, regardless of their gender. On the other hand, it is possible that our respondents held specific social expectations about their sport participation, hoping that their participation in a given sport discipline (e.g., marathon running) would enable them to meet their specific needs (e.g., autonomy) [40]. However, this issue warrants further investigation.
Furthermore, we found that recognition and affiliation were more significant motivations for individuals aged 35 and older compared to those younger than 35. This result partially matches those of previous studies. In general, recognition (a wish to, e.g., earn respect for one’s peers or people in general, win praise) matters a great deal for young people, while affiliation (motivations such as, e.g., to participate in activities with family or friends, to meet people and share experiences) means more for older people [38]. Our study proved that seniors valued affiliation and recognition, capitalizing on their need for relatedness. In a similar vein, studies on wheelchair basketball and rugby players have shown that increasing age is positively correlated with increased social motivation (e.g., “being with friends”) [19]. Similarly, Brasile and Hedrick [18] also found positive correlations between the age of wheelchair basketball players and the stress they experienced in their responses on social aspects behind their motivation for participation. If younger runners meet new people on the internet or at the university, then older runners have fewer opportunities for socializing and winning social prestige. According to a diagnostic survey among marathon runners in Poland, age influenced responses in three dimensions: the stated importance of health orientation and affiliation correlated with increased age, while self-esteem was given the greatest importance in the 19–25 age group [37]. A study conducted by León-Guereño et al. [37] established that older runners reported greater significance of affiliation as a motive; our study corroborated this finding, with affiliation reportedly more important for runners aged 35 years or older in comparison with the younger cohort. Generally, previous studies among people without disabilities have shown that the age range of runners is important in regard to their participation motives, especially with regard to their achievement motives, such as competition and personal goal achievement, which are more often linked to younger athletes [8].
Regarding the criterion of mobility during running events (wheelchair vs. standing), we identified differences across four motivation groups. Health orientation, weight concerns and personal goal achievement were more important for people who did not use a wheelchair during the run, whereas wheelchair users reported greater importance of motives associated with recognition. Consequently, the locomotion criterion matters for wheelchair users, who had to overcome a number of additional difficulties in order to take part in an MRE—for example, to reach the venue with their expensive equipment and/or an assistant. The desire for recognition among participants may be driven by their need to challenge what is often described as the media's marginalization of sports events for athletes with disabilities. These athletes frequently report that despite their achievements, they receive only limited prestige and social acknowledgment [41]. Moreover, some audiences still perceive sports events involving athletes with disabilities merely as entertainment and recreation, not recognizing them as legitimate sports. This perception contributes to the tangible social marginalization of athletes with disabilities, which is part of the wider issue of social exclusion faced by people with disabilities.
Our results also showed that time since injury or illness influenced the reported scores for the following groups of motives: health orientation, competition, recognition, affiliation and self-esteem. The research showed that the longer the disability experience lasted, the more important the abovementioned motives became. It is worth emphasizing that within the SDT paradigm, the abovementioned motives belong to all three key needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness). One may be tempted to conclude that as newly impaired athletes adapt to their disability, their expectations for the potential benefits that sport can provide soar; consequently, their motivations become stronger and more complex. Moreover, as shown by previous studies, the motivations of people with disabilities for sport participation are dynamic and can shift over time [42].
Study limitations
We recognize certain limitations of this study. First, our main limitation was that we did not collect data through disability classification or disability assessment. The next limitation concerned the type of discipline—we focused on runners only—and the stage of sport careers—for which we did not interview professionals. Finally, our research was limited to only one region of Poland—Greater Poland—which is known for its plain topography, which may influence the motivation for running.
Study implications
The differences in motivation we identified between running PWPD, relevant for athletes, matter even more for event organizers, coaches, sports psychologists and health professionals: using our study, they will all be able to improve their understanding of what motivates PWPD to run, as well as how to help them achieve their goals and challenge them to meet their specific needs. Recently, there has been an upsurge in the popularity of running, with many runners most likely looking for physical and mental training specialists to help them overcome new personal fitness challenges. Future studies should examine other sociodemographic factors that may contribute new information about the studied groups. Furthermore, another promising avenue of research would be to assess the motivations of runners among PWPD in the context of their disability (congenital vs. acquired; PWPD vs visually impaired people vs people with hearing impairment), stage of sports career (initiation, development, mastery), severity of disability, type of discipline, and sport engagement level (recreational vs. competitive vs. elite).