Smart Buildings: Pioneering Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4506185/v2

The increase in the demand for buildings to cater to the rising population and urbanization has contributed to extreme climate change due to the continuous emission of greenhouse gases during the construction and operational stages of the building. Therefore, this study seeks to investigate the potential of smart buildings as a tool for combating climate change and mitigating its adverse impacts on the environment. A mixed-methods approach of case studies, interview guides, and questionnaires were used for this study. Seven smart buildings, including both commercial and residential structures from different countries, were selected using a predefined checklist for detailed examination. Semi-structured interviews and questionnaires were conducted and administered to the building industry and energy management professionals to understand how smart buildings help mitigate climate change. The study found that smart buildings contribute to climate change mitigation not only through reduced energy consumption but also by addressing waste reduction, water conservation, and biodiversity. The findings also indicate that engaging occupants in energy-saving practices and educating them about energy usage is essential for achieving sustainability. However, the complexity, security concerns, and high costs of smart building technologies hinder their acceptance and construction. Despite these challenges, smart buildings are vital for climate mitigation. Further research is needed to explore factors influencing user acceptance of smart technologies, including psychological, social, and cultural aspects.

Building

climate change

greenhouse gases

mitigation

and smart building

Climate change is one of the biggest issues facing humanity in the twenty-first century and has detrimental effects on the environment, human health, and the economy on a worldwide scale [1, 15, 8]. According to the IPCC report, the biggest contribution to climate change comes from increased carbon dioxide concentration in the atmosphere since 1750 [89]. The building sector significantly contributes to carbon dioxide emissions, accounting for 25–40% of anthropogenic greenhouse gases in developed regions like OECD countries. Of these emissions, 40–95% originate from operational energy, waste management, and building materials while construction and demolition contribute the remainder [38, 70, 80]. This share of emissions is projected to rise due to global population growth and increasing wealth, especially in Asian and African regions [54, 44], as well as the demand for housing upgrades in highly urbanized areas [79]. Consequently, energy use and related emissions could potentially double or even triple [99, 3]. Even if emissions were halted immediately, the temperature would still rise for centuries due to the existing greenhouse gases in the atmosphere [87, 100]. Climate change, driven by human activities and their resultant greenhouse gas emissions, poses a severe threat to our environment. This underscores the importance of designing structures in the present era that can function effectively in both current and future climates, while also minimizing their carbon footprint for the sake of present and future generations [75]. Passive buildings, low energy consumption buildings, green buildings, modular construction, information modeling, and smart building technology (SBT) have become the main trend [27, 90].

Recently, the adoption of smart buildings has come to the spotlight due to its benefits in the construction industry for developed and developing countries [30]. While smart building technology has been around for some time, the potential of smart buildings as a tool for climate change mitigation remains largely untapped. Though there is a growing body of literature on smart buildings, the majority of these studies tend to focus on: A systematic review of the smart energy conservation system: From smart homes to sustainable smart cities [56]; Smart lighting: The way forward [21]; Smart buildings feature and key performance indicators [4]; A review of enabling technologies and applications [50]; Smart buildings: Systems and drivers [35]. This research primarily focuses on energy efficiency and occupant comfort in smart buildings, but it does not sufficiently address their broader environmental impacts, such as water conservation, waste management, and biodiversity. These factors are crucial for mitigating the urgent challenge of climate change. As the adverse consequences of climate change become increasingly prevalent and severe, society must adopt a comprehensive response. Traditional approaches have been valuable, but the complexity and urgency of the climate crisis demand innovative and integrated solutions to mitigate its negative effects on our environment and communities. Smart buildings, with their adaptability, interconnectedness, and capacity to integrate multiple solutions, offer a promising avenue for addressing this multifaceted challenge. Therefore, the aim of this research is to broaden the scope of smart building studies beyond just energy efficiency and occupant comfort, to encompass broader environmental impacts such as water conservation, waste management, and biodiversity. This comprehensive approach seeks to address the urgent challenges of climate change and population growth by advocating for sustainable and holistic smart building practices. Ultimately, this research aims to pave the way for more resilient and sustainable urban development.

The Impact of Climate Change on Building

Climate change pertains to the alterations in the worldwide climate that have taken place since the 1900s, along with the continuous rise in greenhouse gas emissions that cause the disasters linked to these changes [26, 32]. Fawzy et al [33], define climate change as a change in climate patterns primarily brought on by greenhouse gas emissions from human activity and natural systems. However, Paehler [74], stipulated that changing climate is caused majorly due to man-made greenhouse gases. Thus far, human activity has raised global temperatures by about 1.0℃ over pre-industrial levels; if current emission rates continue, this warming is expected to increase to 1.5 °C between 2030 and 2052 [19, 47].

There is no denying that buildings are affected by climate change. Scholars like Hedlund et al. [39], Lawrence et al. [58], and Huang & Zhai [43], have noted that although the precise scope of these effects is unknown and will vary greatly between and within regions, climate change is predicted to have a significant impact on the built environment. Increased rainfall, permafrost thawing, an increase in wildfire frequency, strong storms, and floods are some of the effects of climate change on the built environment [24, 93, 29, 63, 68]. Nonetheless, a lot of buildings are susceptible to extreme weather events and climate change, and the location of built assets determines how vulnerable they are [29, 64, 68], without making investments in resilience, this vulnerability will inevitably grow [28].

Climate change also directly affects the building industry by delaying and raising the costs of construction, varying the length of the construction season, and increasing energy demand due to higher temperatures [84, 81]. Besides, the occurrence and intensity of heat waves are increasing, which affects architectural design. This could require altering current building designs or their architectural approaches [18]. Furthermore, a different Australian study emphasized the primary consequences of climate change on buildings. These included higher temperatures leading to higher energy consumption, the detrimental health effects of overheating, stronger tropical cyclones and storms, and a higher chance of damage from stronger winds, drier soil, more ground movements and cracks on pipelines and foundations, as well as a higher risk of flooding and forest fires [9]. According to another review from Malaysia, there will be consequences from climate change for building energy systems, energy demand, and internal services. These consequences include those related to indoor environmental quality, building sustainability, traditional HVAC systems, heating and cooling energy consumption, peak demand and building electricity consumption, and building carbon emissions [98, 34]. Moreover, in several US research studies, the effects of climate change on buildings go beyond heatwaves [42] and include an increase in the demand for power grid capacity [91]. In addition, heat island effects (UHIs) will result from climate change [48, 36], and the operation cost of buildings will increase dramatically, potentially disrupting the already fragile energy supply system, unless significant modifications are made to the way buildings are designed, built, and operated in the ensuing decades [25].

Concept of Smart Buildings

The idea of "smart buildings" is not new; rather, it is starting to take shape as smart systems, smart sensors, smart appliances, cloud computing, and ubiquitous connectivity become more commonplace [77, 92]. The term "smart building" refers to a variety of technologies that are being incorporated into structures; it is frequently used synonymously with "intelligent building," although the two terms do not always mean the same thing [41]. According to Belani et al. [11], a smart building is an amalgam of systems, materials, design, and technology that provides users with an environment that is dynamic, flexible, interactive, economical, integrated, and productive. Batov [10], opined that the term is mainly understood in terms of the advantages it offers, including comfort, security, health, energy and time savings, assistive domotics, and embedded systems. Smart buildings, on the other hand, combine the best features of automated and simple building systems with real-time user needs adaptation provided by sensors [49, 94]. Beyond just turning things on and off, smart buildings also gather information about how and when they are used and provide a real-time picture of the buildings' condition [67]. According to Kiliccote et al. [55], smart buildings are both self-aware and grid-aware, collaborating with a smart grid while emphasizing greater control granularity and real-time demand side response. These definitions of smart buildings consider the goals of the buildings as well as the means of achieving them. One could argue that increasing a building's value is what motivates building development [14]. This value is dependent on the building's category and context. Still, it typically stems from themes related to building performance, comfort, and satisfaction of occupants, as well as the building's overall cost during construction and operation [83, 17].

In addition to embodying the notion of "smartness," smart buildings also represent the idea of "sustainability" through their balanced interactions with the city, particularly with energy conservation, infrastructure, smart technologies, and information and communication technologies (ICT) [23, 70, 35]. A sustainable building can be achieved by using computers and intelligent technologies to find the best combinations of overall comfort level and energy consumption [96]. Moreover, the development and application of novel frameworks, such as building management systems, facilitate the gathering of information about the use of a building and give a real-time picture of its condition [85, 5, 8]. Furthermore, the data collected enables smart buildings to adapt their physical form and operations by getting ready for events in advance [51]. A smart building's successful operation depends on its capacity to adjust in response to data obtained from building use [14, 49]. When occupants make choices that increase their level of comfort and satisfaction, the building's systems learn from their experiences over time by analyzing data from previous usage and making adjustments [14]. According to Brown et al. [13], the buildings are occupant-based, because they encourage active engagement by incorporating input from users regarding how they use the space and by providing methods of inherent control through intelligent systems and integrated enterprise.

Energy Efficiency in Building

Energy-efficient buildings strive for the lowest possible energy requirements while utilizing reasonably available resources [78, 97, 71]. A building's energy demand can be influenced by various factors such as climate zones, building materials, ventilation systems, artificial lighting and appliances, building design, and the traits and behaviors of building occupants [20]. Despite their potential to significantly affect thermal comfort and energy consumption in buildings, these factors can be managed through the implementation of energy-efficient measures [66]. According to Ganda and Ngwakwe [37] and Lackner [57], energy efficiency is using less energy to achieve goals previously accomplished with a given amount of energy. It can also be defined as a method of using energy so that building services require less energy to provide [22, 31]. Energy efficiency is often seen as the first step toward attaining sustainability in buildings because it lowers rising energy costs, increases the value and competitiveness of buildings, and lowers greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [60, 40, 62].

Energy efficiency is seen as the best strategy in many developed and developing nations to address and overcome the ever-increasing energy needs [6]. Energy efficiency measures are best implemented in a building during its operational phase and can be classified as either active or passive solutions, according to Sun et al. [88]. Enhancing HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems and other energy-intensive systems is one of the active solutions [76]. The goal of passive solutions is to increase building envelope energy efficiency [72, 65]. Numerous studies have acknowledged the potential energy savings achieved by using active solutions [62, 52]. On the other hand, researchers have recently become interested in passive solutions as a means of enhancing the energy-efficient design of façade systems. For example, the transmittance of a double-skin façade can reduce the heat gains and losses of a building in comparison to a single-skin façade [7]. Not to mention, passive solutions are more economical that is, their investment costs are smaller than their potential energy savings [16].

Numerous techniques were put forth to enhance the façade system, which can be categorized into two typical approaches. The first tactic is to use a façade system to instrument shading devices to lower the amount of heat gained from sunlight [5, 59]. Conversely, the second approach looks into how façade systems' thermal transmittance affects energy efficiency [16]. These two approaches aim to use less energy in design elements, suitable and ambitious technologies, and optimized facility management throughout the building life cycle can all lead to energy savings.

The study spanned four months, with M.Sc. students assisting as research assistants to distribute and collect questionnaires from various professional groups. Using a mixed-methods approach of qualitative and quantitative research, data was gathered through interviews, case studies, and questionnaires. For the case study, seven smart buildings, both commercial and residential, were examined across different countries. These buildings included Central Park Sydney and Pixel Building in Melbourne, Australia; The Crystal and The Shard in London, United Kingdom; The Built Center in Seattle, United States; The Edge in the Netherlands; The Pearl in Qatar; and Glumac in Shanghai, China. Each building was analyzed using a pre-defined checklist to evaluate sustainable features such as energy efficiency, water conservation, waste management, and biodiversity integration. A semi-structured interview was conducted with 30 practicing architects in the building industry who were purposively selected based on their area of expertise and significant industry experience. The questions aimed to gather insights on how smart buildings can mitigate climate change by reducing environmental impact, explore related challenges and opportunities, and identify further research needs. The interview technique ensured consistency by asking all interviewees the same questions, allowing for thorough and detailed discussions.

Questionnaires were equally distributed to academics with research expertise in the fields of climate science, energy management and sustainability, and architecture. This allowed for a multidisciplinary approach to investigating the potential of smart buildings in mitigating climate change, providing a comprehensive understanding of the issue from different perspectives. The questionnaires were distributed through a stratified random sampling method to ensure that the sample size adequately reflected the population of interest. The sample size of five hundred and thirty-six 536 respondents, comprising three hundred and fifty-eight (358) architects, ninety-eight (98) energy consultants, and eighty (80) climatologists, was determined to be adequate for the study based on the work of Marshall et al. [65]. Three-hundred and seventy-five (375) copies of the question were returned, yielding a 70% return rate which was considered adequate for analysis in qualitative research according to Boddy [12]. Descriptive statistics from SPSS software were used to compile and analyse the data, and the results are shown in tables and charts.

Nature of building

To comprehensively understand the role of smart building features in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, a systematic evaluation was conducted on 10 selected smart buildings using a predefined checklist. This checklist enabled researchers to assess various components, including the building envelope (e.g., windows and walls), HVAC systems, building automation systems (BAS), and the integration of renewable energy sources such as solar panels and geothermal heating. The environmental impacts of smart buildings, such as waste management, water conservation, and biodiversity, were also thoroughly examined.

In terms of building envelopes, it was observed that 50% used dynamic glazing systems, 20% used high-cladding, and 30% utilized sustainable and recyclable materials. These materials provided thermal insulation and resistance to weather elements, thereby reducing energy consumption for heating and cooling. The analysis of BAS revealed a diverse range of systems used across the smart buildings surveyed. Specifically, 20% of the buildings employed Metasys, 20% utilized Varasys, 30% integrated BCPro, and another 30% adopted Facility Explorer. Despite their different brands, these BAS solutions offered similar capabilities, including real-time energy consumption monitoring, automatic regulation of lighting, temperature, and security systems, all of which contributed to improved building efficiency, sustainability, and occupant comfort.

Regarding renewable energy, 60% of the buildings were powered by solar energy, while 40% utilized geothermal energy. Solar energy systems convert sunlight into electricity, whereas geothermal energy is used for heating and cooling, providing a sustainable alternative to traditional HVAC systems. The seamless integration of these smart features into building designs underscores the growing importance of eco-friendly technologies in modern architecture and the trend toward more sustainable and energy-efficient buildings. The relationship between smart buildings and biodiversity is an emerging area of interest, demonstrating how innovative architectural and technological solutions can support and enhance urban ecosystems. Smart buildings, with their advanced design and integrated technologies, offer several ways to promote biodiversity within urban environments.

Biodiversity Integration

Smart buildings integrate biodiversity through a range of innovative features designed to support urban ecosystems and enhance the natural environment This was agreed with by 75 percent of the respondents as shown in figure 1. Respondents noted that one notable method mostly used to achieve this in smart buildings is through the use of green roofs and walls, which are covered with vegetation this was noted in seven of the buildings examined as smart buildings integrate plants both around in and on buildings. These features provide habitats for mostly plant and animal species, reduce the urban heat island effect, improve air quality, and offer aesthetic benefits. Vertical gardens are another effective way smart buildings support biodiversity. Additionally, respondents noted that incorporating biodiverse landscaping with native plants promotes local biodiversity, as these plants are better adapted to the local climate and require less maintenance. Connecting green spaces is another significant aspect as respondents opined that by designing smart buildings to link with nearby parks, green corridors, and other natural areas, a continuous habitat is created for wildlife, facilitating movement and genetic exchange. In addition to the integrated feature of biodiversity, respondents stated that even the use of sustainable materials in construction also supports biodiversity by reducing environmental impact and promoting eco-friendly practices. Overall, these integrated features help create healthier and more resilient ecosystems within the built environment, showcasing the vital role smart buildings play in urban biodiversity conservation while effectively sequestering carbon and reducing greenhouse gas levels in the atmosphere.

However, twenty-five percent (25%) of the respondents as shown in Figure 1 disagreed that smart buildings effectively integrate biodiversity features. They pointed out that while smart buildings are advanced in many ways, incorporating elements that support biodiversity, such as green roofs, vertical gardens, and habitat creation, can be overlooked or underdeveloped. This suggests that there is room for improvement in ensuring that smart buildings contribute to urban biodiversity by creating more natural habitats and supporting a diverse range of plant and animal species. Besides, respondents highlighted potential concerns with integrating green roofs and vertical gardens into smart buildings. These features, while beneficial for biodiversity and aesthetics, can pose challenges such as increased structural load on the building, higher maintenance requirements, and potential issues with water leakage or insulation. It’s crucial to ensure that these systems are designed and installed correctly to mitigate any adverse impacts and maximize their environmental benefits. Proper planning, regular maintenance, and the use of high-quality materials can help address these challenges and enhance the sustainability of smart buildings.

Waste Management Integration

Waste management in smart buildings represents a critical aspect of sustainable urban living. By leveraging advanced technologies, smart buildings can effectively minimize waste generation and optimize waste processing, while contributing significantly to environmental conservation. This was supported by 85 percent of respondents as shown in Figure 2 believe smart buildings reduce waste generated during construction and operational stages. The buildings examined confirmed this, showing that intelligent waste sorting systems are a key strategy for smart buildings ensuring that more waste is diverted from landfills which are a major source of methane, a potent greenhouse gas. This process reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills hence helping decrease methane emissions. Respondents noted that smart building systems employ sensors and automated mechanisms to separate recyclable materials from general waste, ensuring a higher percentage of waste is diverted from landfills and directed toward recycling facilities. This significantly reduces the environmental burden of waste disposal. Additionally, smart buildings often incorporate waste-to-energy technologies, converting organic waste into energy through processes like anaerobic digestion or incineration with energy recovery. This not only reduces the volume of waste that needs to be managed but also generates a renewable energy source, which can power the building or contribute to the local energy grid. Below are some additional statements from respondents highlighting the effectiveness of smart buildings in mitigating waste associated with buildings:

Respondent 18: Smart buildings' waste sorting systems drastically cut down landfill waste, promoting recycling and environmental sustainability.

Respondent 24: The integration of waste-to-energy technologies in smart buildings provides a dual benefit of waste reduction and renewable energy generation.

Respondent 28: Smart buildings enhance waste management efficiency, making it easier to separate and recycle materials.

Respondent 7: By converting organic waste into energy, smart buildings contribute to both waste reduction and energy sustainability.

Also, smart buildings utilize real-time waste tracking and management systems. These systems monitor waste generation patterns and optimize collection schedules, ensuring that waste is collected efficiently and resources are used effectively. By analyzing data on waste production, building managers can identify opportunities for further waste reduction and implement targeted interventions. Furthermore, smart buildings emphasize the importance of reducing waste at the source. This can involve designing buildings and using materials that generate less waste during construction and operation. For instance, modular construction techniques and prefabricated components can significantly reduce construction waste. Within the building, promoting practices such as composting organic waste and reducing single-use plastics can further minimize waste generation. The implementation of these advanced waste management strategies in smart buildings not only contributes to environmental sustainability but also enhances the overall efficiency and livability of urban areas. By addressing waste management comprehensively, smart buildings play a vital role in creating a circular economy where resources are continuously reused and recycled, reducing the need for new raw materials and minimizing environmental impact.

While a significant number of respondents agreed on waste mitigation through smart buildings, 15 percent did not share this view. They believe that while smart buildings can help with waste sorting, they cannot reduce overall waste. These respondents emphasized that building occupants are the primary producers of waste during the operational phase and should be educated on the environmental impact of their waste production and ways to minimize waste generation. However, it is important to note that waste sorting reduces the generated waste, and the integration of intelligent waste management systems in smart buildings demonstrates a proactive approach to environmental stewardship.

Water Conservation Integration

Water conservation is a crucial aspect of sustainable design and operation in smart buildings, a point unanimously agreed upon by respondents as shown in Figure 3. They noted that smart buildings employ advanced strategies and technologies to minimize water consumption and ensure efficient use. By conserving water, smart buildings reduce the energy needed for these processes, thereby lowering greenhouse gas emissions associated with energy. One primary method is the installation of efficient plumbing fixtures, such as low-flow faucets, showerheads, and toilets, which significantly reduce water usage without compromising functionality or comfort. Additionally, respondents highlighted rainwater harvesting systems as another innovative feature in smart buildings. These systems collect and store rainwater for non-potable uses like irrigation and toilet flushing, further enhancing water conservation efforts. This practice not only reduces the demand for treated water but also promotes more sustainable use of natural resources. Respondents highlighted greywater recycling as another key component of water conservation in smart buildings. This method involves treating and reusing wastewater from sinks, showers, and laundry for purposes like irrigation and toilet flushing, thereby conserving water and minimizing waste. In addition to these systems, smart buildings feature advanced water monitoring technologies. These systems offer real-time tracking and monitoring of water consumption, enabling building managers to make informed decisions. Prompt detection of leaks and inefficient usage patterns further enhances water conservation efforts. This efficient water use in smart buildings leads to a reduced carbon footprint. This is because less water needs to be pumped, treated, and heated, all of which contribute to carbon emissions

Here are some responses from the respondents:

Respondent 12: Greywater recycling in smart buildings significantly reduces the strain on freshwater resources and promotes a sustainable water cycle.

Respondent 9: The integration of advanced water monitoring systems helps us detect and address water inefficiencies quickly, preventing waste.

Respondent 1: Utilizing rainwater harvesting and greywater recycling together maximizes water conservation and reduces the need for treated water.

However, respondents highlighted some shortcomings of water conservation in smart buildings. They stressed the need for stringent quality control, especially for greywater recycling systems, to ensure safety and prevent contamination, which can be consistently challenging. Additionally, rainwater systems require extra space, and integrating multiple water-saving technologies can complicate the building's systems. Implementing these systems also incurs high costs in terms of installation, technology, and maintenance, requiring specialized knowledge and skills. Despite these challenges, they can be mitigated with proper planning, investment, and ongoing management, with the long-term benefits outweighing the initial hurdles.

Renewable Energy Integration

Renewable energy sources play a pivotal role in powering smart buildings, enabling them to operate efficiently, sustainably, and with reduced environmental impact. A significant majority of the respondents (95%) expressed their belief that the energy sources used in smart buildings emit significantly lower amounts of carbon dioxide than those produced by other renewable and fossil-based energy sources as shown in Figure 4.

The integration of renewable energy in smart buildings contributes significantly to the reduction in the emission of greenhouse gasses as these energy sources do not produce carbon emissions as part of the electricity generation process. Respondents equally noted that the integration of these renewable energy sources into smart buildings often involves advanced energy management and control systems to optimize their usage. However, 5% of the respondents believe that renewable energy cannot effectively mitigate the emission of CO2 causing climate change. This suggests that some of the respondents are not fully aware of the usage of renewable energy in advanced technology buildings. Renewable energy does not only reduce the emission of greenhouse gasses during the operational stage of the building it also aligns with broader sustainability goals of achieving net-zero energy or carbon neutrality as stated by some of the respondents which is achieved by combining robust building designs with efficient renewable energy systems,

Respondent 8: Smart buildings serve as examples of sustainable and environmentally conscious construction and operation practices.

Respondent 21: The increased investment in renewable energy contributes significantly to the larger goal of sustainable development.

The incorporation of renewable energy sources, such as solar power, wind energy, geothermal solutions, biomass/biofuels, and even hydroelectric power, into smart buildings is a major step toward lowering carbon emissions, promoting sustainable development, and mitigating climate change. Smart buildings demonstrate a commitment to environmentally responsible operations and serve as beacons of sustainable architecture and urban development.

Sustainable Features of Smart Buildings in the Built Environment

To gain a deeper understanding of the sustainable features of smart buildings in the built environment, it is crucial to consider the perspectives of the users themselves. By engaging with these users, we can investigate the effectiveness and practical implications of these sustainable features from the standpoint of those who interact with them daily. This approach ensures that the evaluation is not only comprehensive but also grounded in real-world experiences, providing valuable insights for future improvements and implementations. Table 1 provides a comprehensive list of sustainable features integrated into smart buildings. A standardized measurement scale was developed to systematically categorize the views expressed by users. The mean score for each variable was calculated based on user responses, and decisions regarding each variable's categorization were made using these mean scores.

1.0 – 1.49 Strongly Agree

1.5 - 2.49 Agree

2.5 - 3.49 Disagree

> 3.5 Strongly Disagree

It was revealed in Table 1 that the carbon footprint tracking and reporting feature emerged as the most agreed-upon sustainable feature of smart buildings with a mean score of 1.296. This suggests that there is a clear recognition of the importance of monitoring and reporting carbon emissions in smart buildings. Effective carbon tracking not only helps in understanding the environmental impact of buildings but also aids in implementing strategies to reduce carbon emissions and achieve sustainability goals. This agreement indicates a positive perception of smart buildings' ability to contribute to environmental conservation through diligent tracking and transparent reporting of their carbon footprint. Again, respondents strongly agreed that the water conservation feature was well integrated into smart buildings. These sustainable features manifest in various ways, such as advanced water-saving technologies, rainwater harvesting systems, greywater recycling, and robust construction techniques designed to withstand extreme weather conditions. These elements collectively enhance the building's sustainability and its ability to adapt to changing environmental conditions. Another feature that respondents strongly agreed upon was the use of renewable energy in smart buildings. This suggests that integrating renewable energy sources, such as solar panels and wind turbines, is highly effective and widely recognized as a critical element of sustainable building design. The strong agreement indicates a positive perception of smart buildings' ability to harness renewable energy to reduce reliance on fossil fuels, lower carbon emissions, and promote a more sustainable and eco-friendlier built environment.

In addition, respondents agreed on the importance of resilience to climate events, indicating that smart buildings are designed to withstand extreme weather conditions, ensuring the safety of occupants. Moreover, adaptive reuse and flexibility were agreed upon as sustainable features of smart buildings. This also suggests that smart buildings are designed with the ability to be reconfigured and repurposed to meet changing needs without extensive renovations. This flexibility not only extends the lifespan of the building but also reduces waste and promotes long-term sustainability. It highlights the smart building's capacity to adapt to evolving demands while maintaining its sustainability credentials.

While most features such as waste management, biodiversity, maintenance and equipment optimization, and occupant engagement were agreed upon, features such as security and maintenance and equipment optimization were not. The feature of maintenance and equipment optimization was disagreed upon because of several potential reasons. Firstly, the complexity of smart systems can make maintenance more challenging and costly. Respondents may feel that the specialized knowledge and skills required for maintaining these advanced systems are not readily available. Additionally, there could be concerns about the reliability and longevity of the equipment, as frequent updates and replacements might be necessary. This complexity and associated costs can be seen as significant barriers to the effective optimization of maintenance and equipment in smart buildings. Also, the feature of integrated security was strongly disagreed with. This is due to concerns about the complexity and vulnerability of smart security systems. Respondents might be worried about potential cybersecurity threats and the reliability of these systems in ensuring safety. Lastly, the high cost and ongoing maintenance required for advanced security technologies could be perceived as barriers to effective integration. Addressing these concerns is crucial to fully realizing the potential of smart buildings.

Table 1.0 Respondent opinion on the sustainable features of smart buildings in the Built Environment

Item Description	Strongly Agree	Agree	Disagree	Strongly Disagree	Total	Sum	Mean	Interpretation
Water conservation	295	46	24	10	375	499	1.3306667	Strongly Agree
Waste management	200	85	64	26	375	666	1.776	Agree
Biodiversity	254	60	32	29	375	586	1.5626667	Agree
Security Integration	16	20	89	250	375	1323	3.528	Strongly Disagree
Occupant engagement	181	99	57	38	375	702	1.872	Agree
Acoustic comfort solution	176	100	52	47	375	720	1.92	Agree
Energy management and optimization	203	130	16	26	375	615	1.64	Agree
Resilience to climate event	168	88	63	56	375	757	2.0186667	Agree
Carbon print tracking and reporting	310	35	14	16	375	486	1.296	Strongly Agree
Indoor environmental quality	173	102	67	33	375	710	1.8933333	Agree
Material Efficiency	157	100	47	71	375	782	2.0853333	Agree
Maintenance and equipment optimization	67	120	100	88	375	959	2.5573333	Disagree
Adaptive reuse and flexibility	191	57	89	38	375	724	1.9306667	Agree
Renewable energy storage	317	20	20	18	375	489	1.304	Strongly Agree
Adaptive thermal comfort control	167	85	70	53	375	759	2.024	Agree

The study highlighted smart buildings as a groundbreaking solution to combating climate change, through their innovative technologies and sustainable design principles. These buildings are geared towards minimizing environmental impacts through features like energy efficiency, renewable energy, indoor environmental quality control, waste management, water conservation, biodiversity integration, real-time monitoring, and collaboration within smart grids, paving the way for a sustainable future. Moreover, the study emphasized that the effectiveness of smart buildings in mitigating climate change can be significantly enhanced by fostering environmental awareness and encouraging behavioral changes among occupants. While smart buildings are crucial for addressing climate change, the research concluded that involving occupants in energy-saving practices and empowering them to make informed decisions about energy usage is key to achieving overall sustainability.

However, challenges such as the complexity and high costs of installation and maintenance, as well as security concerns, remain significant deterrents. Despite these issues, smart buildings play a major role in climate mitigation. Further research is necessary to understand the factors influencing user acceptance and adoption of smart technologies, including psychological, social, and cultural aspects that affect occupant interaction and perception of smart systems. These insights will help bridge the gap between innovative technology and everyday use, ensuring smart buildings reach their full potential in the fight against climate change.

Competing interest

The corresponding author states that there is no competing interest in the research work

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Funding

There is no funding available for the project

Authors' contributions

The corresponding author was involved in all the work stages from the conceptualization of the topic to the final draft and review of the research

Adamo, N., Al-Ansari, N., & Sissakian, V. (2021). Review of climate change impacts on the human environment: past, present and future projections. Engineering, 13(11), 605-630.
Akadiri, P. O., Chinyio, E. A., & Olomolaiye, P. O. (2012). Design of a sustainable building: A conceptual framework for implementing sustainability in the building sector. Buildings, 2(2), 126-152.
Aktar, M. A., Alam, M. M., & Al-Amin, A. Q. (2021). Global economic crisis, energy use, CO2 emissions, and policy roadmap amid COVID-19. Sustainable Production and Consumption, 26, 770-781.
Al Dakheel, J., Del Pero, C., Aste, N., & Leonforte, F. (2020). Smart buildings features and key performance indicators: A review. Sustainable Cities and Society, 61, 102328.
Al Dakheel, J., & Tabet Aoul, K. (2017). Building Applications, opportunities, and challenges of active shading systems: A state-of-the-art Review. Energies, 10(10), 1672.
Al-Rakhami M, Gumaei A, Alsanad A, Alamri A, Hassan MM. (2019). An Ensemble Learning Approach for Accurate Energy Load Prediction in Residential Buildings. IEEE Access.7:48328-38. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2909470.
Andjelkovic A, Cvjetković T, Đaković D, Stojanović I. (2012). Development of a simple calculation model for energy performance of double skin façades. Therm Sci 16.
Atalah, E. (2024). Smart Sustainable Cities to Treat the Economic and Climate Repercussions of Global Climate. In Global Perspectives on Climate Change, Social Resilience, and Social Inclusion (pp. 153-173). IGI Global.
Australian Greenhouse report (2007). An assessment of the need to adapt buildings for the unavoidable consequence of climate change. Australian Greenhouse Office.
Batov, E.I. (2015). The distinctive features of “smart” buildings. Procedia Eng. 111, 103–107.
Belani, D.; Makwana, A.H.; Pitroda, J.; Vyas, C.M. (2014). Intelligent building a new era of today’s world. In Proceedings of the Trends and Challenges of Civil Engineering in Today Transforming World, Surat, India, 29,1–16
Boddy, C. (2016). The sample size for qualitative research. Qual. Mark. Res., 19, 426–432.
Brown, Z.B., Dowlatabadi, H. and Cole, R.J. (2009), “Feedback and adaptive behaviour in green buildings”, Intelligent Buildings International, Vol. 1 No. 4, pp. 296-315.
Buckman AH, Mayfeld M, Beck SBM (2014). What is a smart building? Smart Sustain Built Environ 3(2):92–109. https://doi. org/10.1108/SASBE-01-2014-0003
Buhaug, H., Benjaminsen, T. A., Gilmore, E. A., & Hendrix, C. S. (2023). Climate-driven risks to peace over the 21st century. Climate Risk Management, 39, 100471.
Bui, Dac-Khuong; Nguyen, Tuan Ngoc; Ghazlan, Abdallah; Ngo, Ngoc-Tri; Ngo, Tuan Duc (2020). Enhancing building energy efficiency by adaptive faÃ§ade: A computational optimization approach. Applied Energy, 265(), 114797–. doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2020.114797
CABA (2008), Bright Green Buildings: Convergence of Green and Intelligent Buildings, in Sullivan, F. (Ed.), Continental Automated Buildings Association (CABA), Ottawa, pp. 1-220, available at: www.caba.org
Chalmers, P., (2014). Climate Change: Implications for Buildings - Key Findings from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fifth Assessment Report.
Change, P. C. (2018). Global warming of 1.5° C. World Meteorological Organization: Geneva, Switzerland.
Chen, S., Zhang, G., Xia, X., Setunge, S., & Shi, L. (2020). A review of internal and external influencing factors on energy efficiency design of buildings. Energy and Buildings, 216, 109944.
Chew, I., Karunatilaka, D., Tan, C. P., & Kalavally, V. (2017). Smart lighting: The way forward? Reviewing the past to shape the future. Energy and Buildings, 149, 180-191.
Chung, W., Hui, Y. and Lam, Y.M. (2006), ‘Benchmarking the energy efficiency of commercial buildings. Applied Energy. 83 (1), pp. 1-14.
Clements-Croome, D. (2011). Sustainable intelligent buildings for people: A review. Intelligent Buildings International, 3(2), 67-86.
Coe, J. A. (2017). Landslide hazards and climate change: A perspective from the United States. In Slope safety preparedness for the impact of climate change (pp. 479-523). CRC Press.
Crawley, D.B., (2008). Estimating the impacts of climate change and urbanization on building performance. Journal of Building Performance Simulation, 1(2): p. 91-115.DOI: 10.1080/19401490802182079
Cvetković, V. M., Gačić, J., & Jakovljević, V. (2015). Impact of climate change on the distribution of extreme temperatures as natural disasters. Vojno delo, 67(6), 21-42.
Di Biccari, C., Calcerano, F., D'Uffizi, F., Esposito, A., Campari, M., & Gigliarelli, E. (2022). Building information modeling and building performance simulation interoperability: State-of-the-art and trends in current literature. Advanced Engineering Informatics, 54, 101753.
Dicker, S., Unsworth, S., Byrnes, R., Ward, B., Bhatt, M., & Paul, A. (2021). Saving lives and livelihoods: The benefits of investments in climate change adaptation and resilience. CCCEP: Leeds, UK.
Douglas, T. A., Turetsky, M. R., & Koven, C. D. (2020). Increased rainfall stimulates permafrost thaw across a variety of Interior Alaskan boreal ecosystems. NPJ Climate and Atmospheric Science, 3(1), 28.
Ejidike, C. C., & Mewomo, M. C. (2023). Benefits of adopting smart building technologies in building construction of developing countries: Review of literature. SN Applied Sciences, 5(2), 52.
Etiosa, U. (2009). ‘Energy efficiency survey in Nigeria: a guide for developing policy and legislation’, International, Rivers, pp. 1-37.
Fakana, S. T. (2020). Causes of climate change. Global Journal of Science Frontier Research, 20, 7-12.
Fawzy, S., Osman, A. I., Doran, J., & Rooney, D. W. (2020). Strategies for mitigation of climate change: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 18, 2069-2094.
Flores-Larsen, S., C. Filippín, and G. Barea, (2019). Impact of climate change on energy use and bioclimatic design of residential buildings in the 21st century in Argentina. Energy and Buildings, 184: p. 216-229.DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2018.12.015
Froufe, M. M., Chinelli, C. K., Guedes, A. L. A., Haddad, A. N., Hammad, A. W., & Soares, C. A. P. (2020). Smart buildings: Systems and drivers. Buildings, 10(9), 153.
Galdies, C., & Lau, H. S. (2020). Urban heat island effect, extreme temperatures, and climate change: a case study of Hong Kong SAR. Climate Change, Hazards, and Adaptation Options: handling the impacts of a changing climate, 369-388.
Ganda, F., & Ngwakwe, C. C. (2014). Role of energy efficiency on sustainable development. Environmental Economics, 5(1), 86-99.
Gustavsson L, Joelsson A, Sathre R. (2010). Life cycle primary energy use and carbon emission of an eight-story wood-framed apartment building. Energy Buildings 42:230–42
Hedlund, J., Fick, S., Carlsen, H., & Benzie, M. (2018). Quantifying transnational climate impact exposure: New perspectives on the global distribution of climate risk. Global environmental change, 52, 75-85.
Hertwich, E. G., Ali, S., Ciacci, L., Fishman, T., Heeren, N., Masanet, E., .& Wolfram, P. (2019). Material efficiency strategies to reducing greenhouse gas emissions associated with buildings, vehicles, and electronics—a review. Environmental Research Letters, 14(4), 043004.
Hoy, M. (2016). Smart Buildings: An Introduction to the Library of the Future. Medical reference services quarterly. 35. 326-331. 10.1080/02763869.2016.1189787.
Huang, J. and K.R. Gurney, (2016). The variation of climate change impact on building energy consumption to building type and spatiotemporal scale. Energy, 111: p. 137-153.DOI: 10.1016/j.energy.2016.05.118
Huang, M. T., & Zhai, P. M. (2021). Achieving Paris Agreement temperature goals requires carbon neutrality by the middle century with far-reaching transitions in the whole society. Advances in Climate Change Research, 12(2), 281-286.
International Energy Agency (2019). Global status report for buildings and construction: towards a zero-emission, efficient and resilient buildings and construction sector.
IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (1996). in Bruce, J., Lee, H., and Haites, E. (eds), 1995 Working Group III Report, Cambridge University Press
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (2007). Climate Change 2007: The Scientific Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, edited by S. Solomon et al., Cambridge Univ. Press, New York.
IPCC, (2018). Global warming of 1.5C. An IPCC special report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways. https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/.
Iping, A., Kidston-Lattari, J., Simpson-Young, A., Duncan, E., & McManus, P. (2019). (Re) presenting urban heat islands in Australian cities: A study of media reporting and implications for urban heat and climate change debates. Urban Climate, 27, 420-429.
Jia, R., Jin, B., Jin, M., Zhou, Y., Konstantakopoulos, I. C., Zou, H., & Spanos, C. J. (2018). Design automation for smart building systems. Proceedings of the IEEE, 106(9), 1680-1699.
Jia, M., Komeily, A., Wang, Y., & Srinivasan, R. S. (2019). Adopting Internet of Things for the development of smart buildings: A review of enabling technologies and applications. Automation in Construction, 101, 111-126.
Jin, J., Gubbi, J., Marusic, S., & Palaniswami, M. (2014). An information framework for creating a smart city through the Internet of things. IEEE Internet of Things journal, 1(2), 112-121.
Jung W, Jazizadeh F. (2019). Human-in-the-loop HVAC operations: A quantitative review on occupancy, comfort, and energy-efficiency dimensions. Appl Energy 239:1471–508.
Junnila, S., Horvath, A., & Guggemos, A. A. (2006). Life-cycle assessment of office buildings in Europe and the United States. Journal of infrastructure systems, 12(1), 10-17.
Kc, S. & Lutz, W. (2017). The human core of the shared socioeconomic pathways: Population scenarios by age, sex and level of education for all countries to 2100. Glob. Environ. Change 42, 181–192
Kiliccote, S., Piette, M. A., & Ghatikar, G. (2011). Smart buildings and demand response. In AIP Conference Proceedings (Vol. 1401, No. 1, pp. 328-338). American Institute of Physics.
Kim, H., Choi, H., Kang, H., An, J., Yeom, S., & Hong, T. (2021). A systematic review of the smart energy conservation system: From smart homes to sustainable smart cities. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 140, 110755
Lackner, M. (2022). Energy efficiency: Comparison of different systems and technologies. In Handbook of climate change mitigation and adaptation (pp. 381-456). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Lawrence, J., Blackett, P., & Cradock-Henry, N. A. (2020). Cascading climate change impacts and implications. Climate Risk Management, 29, 100234.
Lee, D., Cho, Y. H., & Jo, J. H. (2021). Assessment of control strategy of adaptive façades for heating, cooling, lighting energy conservation, and glare prevention. Energy and Buildings, 235, 110739.
Liu, Z., Zhou, Q., Tian, Z., He, B. J., & Jin, G. (2019). A comprehensive analysis of definitions, development, and policies of nearly zero energy buildings in China. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 114, 109314.
Li W, Koo C, Cha SH, Hong T, Oh J. (2018). A novel real-time method for HVAC system operation to improve indoor environmental quality in meeting rooms. Build Environ 144:365–85.
Li, Y. L., Han, M. Y., Liu, S. Y., & Chen, G. Q. (2019). Energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions by buildings: A multi-scale perspective. Building and Environment, 151, 240-250.
Loucks, D. P. (2021). Impacts of climate change on economies, ecosystems, energy, environments, and human equity: A systems perspective. In The impacts of climate change (pp. 19-50). Elsevier.
Luo, Y., Zhang, L., Bozlar, M., Liu, Z., Guo, H., & Meggers, F. (2019). Active building envelope systems toward renewable and sustainable energy. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 104, 470-491.
Marshall, B., Cardon, P., Poddar, A., & Fontenot, R. (2013). Does sample size matter in qualitative research?: A review of qualitative interviews in IS research. J. Comput. Inf. Syst, 54, 11–22
Martínez-Molina, A., Tort-Ausina, I., Cho, S., & Vivancos, J. L. (2016). Energy efficiency and thermal comfort in historic buildings: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 61, 70-85.
Minoli D, Sohraby K, Occhiogrosso B (2017). IoT considerations, requirements, and architectures for smart buildings—Energy optimization and next-generation building management systems. IEEE Internet Things J 4(1):269–283
Mokhov, I. I. (2022). Climate change: Causes, risks, consequences, and problems of adaptation and regulation. Herald of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 92(1), 1-11.
Moreno, M. V., Zamora, M. A., & Skarmeta, A. F. (2014). User‐centric smart buildings for energy-sustainable smart cities. Transactions on emerging telecommunications technologies, 25(1), 41-55.
Nejat, P., Jomehzadeh, F., Taheri, M. M., Gohari, M., & Majid, M. Z. A. (2015). A global review of energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and policy in the residential sector (with an overview of the top ten CO2 emitting countries). Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 43, 843-862.
Ochedi, E., & Taki, A. H. (2019). Energy Efficient Building Design in Nigeria: An Assessment of the Effect of the Sun on Energy Consumption in Residential Buildings.
Omrany, H., Ghaffarianhoseini, A., Ghaffarianhoseini, A., Raahemifar, K., & Tookey, J. (2016). Application of passive wall systems for improving the energy efficiency in buildings: A comprehensive review. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 62, 1252-1269.
Pacheco, R., Ordóñez, J., & Martínez, G. (2012). Energy efficient design of building: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(6), 3559-3573.
Paehler HK (2007). Nigeria is in the dilemma of climate change. Konrad Adenauer-Stiftung 3, Rudolf Close, off Katsina Alla Crescent Maitama Abuja http://www.kas.de/nigeria/en/publications/11468/
Pieter de Wilde; David Coley (2012). The implications of a changing climate for buildings. , 55(none), 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2012.03.014
Pompei, L., Nardecchia, F., Viglianese, G., Rosa, F., & Piras, G. (2023). Towards the Renovation of Energy-Intensive Building: The Impact of Lighting and Free-Cooling Retrofitting Strategies in a Shopping Mall. Buildings, 13(6), 1409.
Qolomany, B., Al-Fuqaha, A., Gupta, A., Benhaddou, D., Alwajidi, S., Qadir, J., & Fong, A. C. (2019). Leveraging machine learning and big data for smart buildings: A comprehensive survey. IEEE Access, 7, 90316-90356.
Radhi, H. (2008). A systematic approach for low energy buildings in Bahrain (PhD).
Rao, N. D. & Min, J. (2018). Decent living standards: material prerequisites for human wellbeing. Soc. Indic. Res. 138, 225–244.
Röck, M., Saade, M. R. M., Balouktsi, M., Rasmussen, F. N., Birgisdottir, H., Frischknecht, R., & Passer, A. (2020). Embodied GHG emissions of buildings–The hidden challenge for effective climate change mitigation. Applied Energy, 258, 114107.
Salimi, M., & Al-Ghamdi, S. G. (2020). Climate change impacts on critical urban infrastructure and urban resiliency strategies for the Middle East. Sustainable Cities and Society, 54, 101948
Samancioglu, N. (2022). Smart Building and Campus Framework: A Determination of Smart Campus Parameters to Predict Potential Smartness of University Campuses (Doctoral dissertation, Ensenanza).
Shabha, G. (2006), “A critical review of the impact of embedded smart sensors on productivity in the workplace”, Facilities, Vol. 24 No. 13, pp. 538-549
Shahid, S., Pour, S. H., Wang, X., Shourav, S. A., Minhans, A., & Ismail, T. B. (2017). Impacts and adaptation to climate change in Malaysian real estate. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 9(1), 87-103.
Shan S, Cao B, Wu Z. (2019). Forecasting the Short-Term Electricity Consumption of Building Using a Novel Ensemble Model. IEEE Access. 7:88093-106. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2925740.
Sinopoli, J. (2010). Smart Building Systems for Architects, Owners and Builders Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford
Solomon, S., Daniel, J. S., Sanford, T. J., Murphy, D. M., Plattner, G. K., Knutti, R., & Friedlingstein, P. (2010). Persistence of climate changes due to a range of greenhouse gases. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 107(43), 18354-18359.
Sun, X., Gou, Z., & Lau, S. S. Y. (2018). Cost-effectiveness of active and passive design strategies for existing building retrofits in tropical climate: A case study of a zero energy building. Journal of Cleaner Production, 183, 35-45.
Szulejko, J. E., Kumar, P., Deep, A., & Kim, K. H. (2017). Global warming projections to 2100 using simple CO2 greenhouse gas modeling and comments on CO2 climate sensitivity factor. Atmospheric Pollution Research, 8(1), 136-140.
Tachouali, D., Sallam, D., Shakhshir, K., Al Zahabi, S., Wriekat, T., & Ks, V. (2023). Application of Smart Systems and Innovative Solutions for Harmony Home “A Sustainable Net Zero Energy House”. In 2023 International Conference on Computational Intelligence and Knowledge Economy (ICCIKE) (pp. 337-342). IEEE.
Tarroja, B., Chiang, F., AghaKouchak, A., Samuelsen, S., Raghavan, S. V., Wei, M., & Hong, T. (2018). Translating climate change and heating system electrification impacts on building energy use to future greenhouse gas emissions and electric grid capacity requirements in California. Applied Energy, 225, 522-534.Tiwari, P. (2001). Energy efficiency and building construction in India. Building and Environment, 36(10), 1127-1135.
Verma, A., Prakash, S., Srivastava, V., Kumar, A., & Mukhopadhyay, S. C. (2019). Sensing, controlling, and IoT infrastructure in the smart building: A review. IEEE Sensors Journal, 19(20), 9036-9046
Vincent, W. F. (2020). Arctic climate change: Local impacts, global consequences, and policy implications. The Palgrave handbook of Arctic policy and politics, 507-526.
Vijayan, D. S., Rose, A. L., Arvindan, S., Revathy, J., & Amuthadevi, C. (2020). Automation systems in smart buildings: a review. Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing, 1-13.
Wa A, Akbarnezhad A, Wu P, Wang X, Haddad A (2019) Building information modelling-based framework to contrast conventional and modular construction methods through selected sustainability factors. J Clean Prod 228:1264–1281. https://doi. org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.04.150
Wang, Z., Wang, L., Dounis, A. I., & Yang, R. (2012). Multi-agent control system with information fusion-based comfort model for smart buildings. Applied Energy, 99, 247-254.
Wei, Y., Zhang, X., Shi, Y., Xia, L., Pan, S., Wu, J., & Zhao, X. (2018). A review of data-driven approaches for prediction and classification of building energy consumption. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 1027-1047.
Yau, Y.H. and S. Hasbi, A (2013). Review of climate change impacts on commercial buildings and their technical services in the tropics. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 18: p. 430- 441.DOI: 10.1016/j.rser.2012.10.035
Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Hu, F., & Wang, Y. (2017). Comparison of evaluation standards for green building in China, Britain, United States. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 68, 262-271.
Zickfeld, K., Solomon, S., & Gilford, D. M. (2017). Centuries of thermal sea-level rise due to anthropogenic emissions of short-lived greenhouse gases. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(4), 657-662.

The authors declare no competing interests.

ListOfFigures.docxSMARTBUILDING.docx

Smart Buildings: Pioneering Solutions for Climate Change Mitigation

Status:

Version 2

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Research Methodology

Findings and Discussion

Conclusions

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Consent for publication

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 2