The Role of Psychological Capital in Academic Procrastination and Adjustment Among Mothers in Higher Education

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The Role of Psychological Capital in Academic Procrastination and Adjustment Among Mothers in Higher Education

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4538594/v1

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This study investigated the relationships between psychological capital (PsyCap), academic procrastination, and academic adjustment, comparing mothers in higher education to non-mothers. We hypothesized academic procrastination would mediate the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment in both groups. Utilizing a sample of 216 students (156 mothers, 60 non-mothers) from various higher education institutions in Israel, we employed a cross-sectional design to analyze the interrelationships among PsyCap, academic procrastination, and academic adjustment. The findings showed significant positive correlations between PsyCap and academic adjustment, and significant negative correlations between PsyCap and procrastination, for both mothers and non-mothers. There were no significant differences in PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination for mothers and non-mothers. The mediation analysis confirmed procrastination mediated the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment in both groups. These results suggest higher PsyCap is associated with lower levels of procrastination and better academic adjustment. The study underscores the importance of fostering PsyCap and providing robust social support systems to improve academic outcomes for all students, particularly mothers.

Psychological Capital

Academic Procrastination

Academic Adjustment

Student Mothers

Higher Education

In academic environments, psychological resources are crucial for non-traditional student groups, such as mothers pursuing higher education. Psychological capital (PsyCap), encompassing resilience, optimism, hope, and self-efficacy, is a critical factor influencing academic success among these students. A substantial body of research in the field of positive organizational behavior demonstrates that PsyCap contributes significantly to enhanced performance and satisfaction across various settings (Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004). We added to the literature by examining the impact of PsyCap on mothers in academic settings, focusing on its effects on academic adjustment and procrastination.

Student mothers face unique challenges because they must balance educational commitments with family responsibilities, and this can significantly affect their academic experiences and outcomes. The elements of PsyCap could play a protective role, enabling mothers to manage their dual roles more effectively. We expected that the enhanced time management, prioritization skills, and emotional resilience fostered by PsyCap would be key enablers in reducing procrastination and improving academic engagement among mothers (Tamannaeifar & Babaahmadi-Rezaei, 2020). This comparative study sought to enrich the understanding of how psychological assets support mothers in achieving their educational goals, thus contributing to the discourse on enhancing support mechanisms within academic institutions (Masten, 2001; Snyder et al., 2002).

PsyCap

The concept of PsyCap is derived from the field of positive organizational behavior (Luthans et al., 2004; Luthans & Youssef, 2004). This resource encompasses four components: resilience, optimism, hope, and self-efficacy. Their integration can foster a positive attitude and motivation toward the organization, in this case, the academic institution (Tamannaeifar & Babaahmadi-Rezaei, 2020). Resilience is a dynamic process of coping with crises and distress. Optimism represents a self-belief in future and present success. Self-efficacy is an individual's confidence in the ability to take on and exert the effort required to complete challenging tasks. Hope reflects persistence towards achieving goals and objectives for future success (Avey et al., 2011; Carmona-Halty et al., 2021). Among students, a high level of PsyCap can manifest in students' dedication to various tasks, their engagement with their place of study, and their academic performance levels (Vîrgă et al., 2022).

A study by Martínez et al. (2019) found PsyCap was a full mediator in the relationship between academic engagement and academic performance. Academically engaged students were likely to have higher psychological resources, and this positively impacted their academic performance. Exploration of alternative models yielded a superior fit for the proposed model. The results suggest the importance of considering psychological predictors, rather than relying on traditional predictors of academic performance.

Mothers in higher education face numerous challenges, including family, career, financial issues, etc., and these can impact their PsyCap (Ingel-Champion, 2021). A study examining mothers’ PsyCap found a positive correlation between PsyCap and social support and parenting skills; the higher a mother's PsyCap, the more social support she received and the better her parenting skills were (Sarwar et al., 2022). Another study found student mothers with high PsyCap had broad social support networks that enabled them to maximize their capabilities within the educational framework (Yue et al., 2023). Moreover, PsyCap as a personal resource was found to enable mothers to pursue their goals, such as studying and persevering in their achievements, even when problems arose (Machín-Rincón et al., 2020).

Academic Adjustment

Academic adjustment refers to the significant emotional experience an individual has with respect to a place of study. There are four components of academic adjustment: academic achievement, social, personal-emotional, and institutional (Wang et al, 2021). The first component, academic achievement, relates to the student's adjustment to academic demands, as well as the level of motivation for learning. The social component reflects the extent of the student's integration into the social context, for example, participating in campus activities, meeting new people, and forming friendships. The personal-emotional component expresses the student’s psychological and physiological feelings and the extent of stress and anxiety or physical reactions (such as lack of sleep). The institutional component pertains to the emotional identification of the student with the academic community and its environment (Credé & Niehorster, 2012).

Studies have shown there is a link between these four components; a positive approach and positive emotion towards the place are expressed in an attraction to the place and a desire to stay there for a long time (Credé & Niehorster, 2012; Ganotice et al., 2016). A study conducted in the United States on how academic adjustment is linked to academic success found students with high academic adjustment had higher grade averages and were more motivated to learn than students with low academic adjustment (Karamanet al., 2022). Another study examined the academic success of first-year university students and the importance of their academic adjustment. It found the likelihood of students continuing their studies after their first year was not related to their ability to cope with academic demands but to their level of academic adjustment. That is, students with low academic adjustment were at higher risk of dropping out of the academic framework than students with high academic adjustment (van Rooij, Jansen et al., 2018).

An extensive literature demonstrates PsyCap is crucial to academic adjustment across diverse populations, including those with special needs and mothers (Geremias, 2021; Sánchez-Cardona et al., 2021). High PsyCap leads to a greater investment in academic activities. By measuring PsyCap it is possible to predict students' academic achievements and their adjustment to the academic system (Hazan-Liran, 2023). Students with high PsyCap are not only motivated to accumulate academic knowledge but are also more satisfied with their chosen degree programs. Consequently, they typically exhibit better academic adjustment and are more capable of meeting the academic demands of their educational institutions than those with lower PsyCap (Geremias, 2021).

It is important to acknowledge that PsyCap is not a singular resource influencing academic adjustment but is affected by a myriad of internal and external factors. These include life events, sleep quality, physical wear, and psychological and emotional states, all of which can modify one's PsyCap (Li et al., 2023). Students with better academic adjustment and high PsyCap are characterized by higher grade averages and more credits earned in their degree programs, and they are more likely to complete their chosen degrees than students with low academic adjustment and PsyCap (Raza et al., 2021).

In the context of higher education, mothers represent a unique population facing additional challenges that can impact their PsyCap and academic adjustment. Balancing academic responsibilities with family duties and possibly a career demands substantial psychological resources. Research indicates that supportive measures, such as flexible scheduling and access to childcare, can significantly enhance the academic adjustment of student mothers, allowing them to maintain or increase their PsyCap, which, in turn, improves their academic performance (Sánchez-Cardona, et al., 2021).

Academic Adjustment Among Mothers

Mothers who choose to study need to cope with the demands of home, raising children, and couplehood, in addition to the academic demands (Crabb & Ekberg, 2014). If student mothers do not have an extensive support network, they could suffer from stress, tension, and anxiety, harming their grades and causing a higher dropout rate than among their peers (Parkes et al., 2015). A study in the United States (Navarro-Cruz et al., 2021) found student mothers with a broad support network experienced academia more positively than those without such support. They were more successful in their studies and coped successfully with multiple demands. Another study found collaborative and informal support helped student mothers manage their responsibilities and promote self-care, contributing to their academic success and personal well-being (Cohen-Miller & Demers, 2019). Social networks provide significant advantages in navigating the complexities of educational systems and supporting academic and personal growth (Jo, 2022).

Academic Procrastination

Academic procrastination is an extensively studied phenomenon, defined as a deliberate delay of an action or course of action despite the procrastinator's awareness that the results will mostly lead to negative outcomes (Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). Procrastination has a variety of causes, including a lack of desire, a lack of readiness in time management, a faulty cognitive assessment of the situation, laziness, and various motivational reasons (Webb & Rosenbaum, 2019). One study found a direct negative relationship between procrastination and the absence of executive functions such as organizational ability, self-regulation, task planning, and monitoring of the individual's performance (Batel-Liran, 2023). The study also found a low level of self-efficacy, low motivation, and poor self-regulation significantly predicted procrastination; when these capabilities decreased, procrastination levels rose.

Many students procrastinate, with negative implications for learning (Tan & Prihadi, 2022; Zacks & Hen, 2018). A study in the United States found many students have a very high frequency of procrastination, whether in writing papers or learning for exams (Rahimi & Hall, 2021). Particularly high levels of procrastination were found to correlate with lower academic performance and lower overall well-being (Hen, 2018). A study on student procrastination reported a negative relationship between high PsyCap and procrastination whereby students with high PsyCap had low levels of procrastination (Saman & Wirawan, 2021). The same study discovered PsyCap can help students develop strategies to reduce procrastination. Another study found people characterized with high PsyCap made more efforts with more tools to fight procrastination (Akhoundi & Aerab Sheibani, 2017).

Entering academic life requires significant adjustment; students need to cope with many demands, including tasks and proper time management, along with adjustment to the emotional, social, and institutional learning space. In addition, entering academia can cause significant stress, with negative psychological effects such as memory depletion, anxiety, and procrastination (Sumarsono et al., 2020). A study found procrastination adversely affected students’ emotional well-being and academic adjustment (Balkis & Duru, 2016). However, higher levels of self-regulation reduced procrastination and negative feelings about academia and enhanced satisfaction with academic life and academic adjustment.

Academic Procrastination Among Student Mothers

Balancing work, study, and motherhood is challenging. Studies show mothers struggle to cope within the academic framework because they attempt to be successful in both roles (Mazerolle & Barrett, 2018). Mothers’ self-efficacy is linked in the literature to procrastination; mothers with low self-efficacy will procrastinate more in areas where they feel least capable. Mothers’ academic procrastination, for example, can be linked to the overload they experience when they have to combine academics with their work and personal lives (Hen & Goroshit, 2018). Previous research primarily examines how academic mothers adapt to the pressures of academia rather than their propensity for procrastination. Supporting evidence from Hazan-Liran (2023) indicates that environments fostering autonomy, provided by partners and academic institutions, significantly reduce procrastination and enhance self-regulated learning, thereby improving academic adjustment for these mothers. Titania and Djamhoer (2023) found well-adjusted academic mothers tend to procrastinate less, particularly in structured settings with clear expectations and support.

The Present Study

Building on these findings, we explored student mothers' PsyCap, procrastination levels, and academic adjustment, comparing these attributes to those of their non-mother counterparts. The objective was to ascertain whether student mothers have distinct characteristics influencing their academic performance and adjustment.

The first research question investigated a possible relationship among the three study variables. We hypothesized a positive correlation between PsyCap and academic adjustment and negative correlations between them and procrastination. The second research question targeted possible differences between student mothers and non-mothers in their PsyCap, procrastination, and academic adjustment. We hypothesized student mothers would have higher levels of academic procrastination than non-mothers but the same level of PsyCap and academic adjustment. The third research question asked if procrastination is a mediator in the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment for both mothers and non-mothers. We hypothesized procrastination would mediate the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment in both groups. That is, the higher the PsyCap, the lower the student's procrastination, and consequently, the higher the student’s academic adjustment.

Participants

The research included 216 Israeli students from different higher education institutions governed by the Council for Higher Education. In Israel, the Council for Higher Education is responsible for supervising and advancing higher education policies, accrediting institutions, approving new programs, and maintaining quality standards. As a result, the institutions involved in our study adhere to comparable academic and operational criteria. This consistency was crucial in ensuring the variations in institutional attributes did not disproportionately impact our results.

To recruit students, we sent a general email through the academic email system to all students across institutions. The study sample encompassed diverse demographic and academic characteristics. Participants' academic status varied; a majority were in BA degree programs (60.6%); others were in MA (26.4%) and PhD programs (13.0%). The distribution across academic years showed representation from first-year students (34.7%), second-year students (21.3%), third-year students (35.2%), and fourth-year students (8.8%). The age of participants ranged from 20 to 55 years, with a mean age of 31.5 years. Marital status varied: single (18.1%), married (75.5%), and divorced (6.4%). Among the participants who were mothers, the number of children ranged from 1 to 9, with a mean of 2. The ages of the children were categorized as follows: 0–6 years (66.7%), 6–11 years (20.5%), 11–18 years (8.9%), and 18 years and above (3.8%). Demographic details are presented in Table 1.

Table 1

Demographic Information
Variables	Subscale	Mother (n = 156)	Non-Mother (n = 60)
Academic Degree	B.A	75 (47%)	56 (93%)
	M.A	53 (35%)	4 (7%)
	Ph.D	28 (18%)	-
Academic Year	1	61 (38%)	14 (23%)
	2	34 (22%)	12 (20%)
	3	46 (30%)	30 (50%)
	4	15 (10%)	4 (7%)
Age	Age Range	22–55 (M = 34)	20–37 (M = 25)
Child Number	Range (M)	1–9 (M = 2)	-
Marital Status	Single	-	39 (65%)
	Married	143 (92%)	21 (35%)
	Divorced	13 (8%)	-
Children Age	0–6	104 (66%)	-
	6–11	32 (21%)	-
	11–18	14 (9%)	-
	18 and up	6 (4%)	-

Instruments

We used four questionnaires to test the research hypotheses.

Demographic and Academic Information

The demographic questionnaire was specifically developed for the study to characterize mothers in academia. The questionnaire gathered comprehensive demographic data to understand the diverse backgrounds and experiences of these individuals. It provided valuable insights into the unique challenges and circumstances faced by mothers pursuing academic careers. This tailored approach ensured the data would be relevant and informative.

PsyCap Questionnaire

Participants' PsyCap was determined using an academic shortened version of the 24-item PsyCap Questionnaire (PCQ-24; Luthans et al., 2007), in which four positive psychological capacities (self-efficacy, hope, resilience, optimism) are applied to academic outcomes. The 12-item version of the PCQ-24 was validated by Avey, Avolio, and Luthans (2011). The PCQ-12 comprises 12 items rated on a 5-point Likert scale, from 1 = strongly disagree, to 5 = strongly agree. The score range of the PCQ is 12–60, with higher scores indicating higher levels of PsyCap. Table 2 shows the division of the subscales, including their reliability in this study.

Table 2

Division and Reliability of PCQ Subscales
Scales	α	Sample Item
Self-efficacy	.78	I feel confident analysing a study-related long-term problem to find a solution.
Hope	.77	There are lots of ways around any study-related problem.
Optimism	.63	When things are uncertain for me as a student, I usually expect the best.
Resilience	.54	I can deal with study-related difficulties because I’ve experienced difficulty before.
Overall	.87

Academic Adjustment Questionnaire (AAQ)

Students' adjustment to post-secondary education was assessed with a shortened version of the Students’ Adaptation to College Questionnaire (SACQ; Baker & Siryk, 1989), hereafter AAQ (Hazan-Liran & Miller, 2019). The AAQ has 30 items and comprises four subscales. Items’ appropriateness is rated on a 9-point Likert scale, from 1 = suits me very much, to 9 = doesn't suit me at all. The score range of the AAQ is 30–270, with higher scores indicating better academic adjustment. Table 3 shows the division of the subscales and their reliability in this study.

Table 3

Division and Reliability of AAQ Subscales
Scales	α	Sample Item
Achievement	.68	I find academic studies difficult.
Social	.75	I have difficulty feeling comfortable in connecting with other students.
Emotional	.86	Lately I’ve been feeling downcast and moody.
Institutional	.79	I am happy with my decision to study at my institution.
Overall	.87

Academic Procrastination Questionnaire

The Procrastination Assessment Scale - Student (PASS, Solomon & Rothblum, 1984) measures and characterizes the degree of an individual’s academic procrastination and the desire to stop this maladaptive behavior. The PASS has 44 items and is divided into two parts. The first part examines the participant’s level of procrastination, while the second looks at the reasons for procrastination. We used the first part only; it consists of 18 items measuring the level of procrastination in six academic areas: writing a term paper; studying for an exam; completing weekly reading assignments; performing administrative tasks; attending meetings; completing academic tasks in general. Each of the six areas contains sections whose items participants are asked to rate on a 5-point Likert scale. The first section measures the frequency of procrastination in academic tasks (‘To what extent do you postpone this task?’). The second measures the degree to which the procrastination of the task causes problems (‘To what extent is the procrastination of this task a problem for you?’). The third measures the participant’s willingness to reduce procrastination (‘How much would you like to reduce your tendency to procrastinate in this task?’). The sum of all the sections indicates the participant’s level of procrastination, with a higher score indicating higher procrastination, and a lower score suggesting lower procrastination. The reliability of the questionnaire for all items was .90.

Study Procedure

We used a cross-sectional methodology, with data acquisition from each participant occurring at a singular temporal juncture. The data were collected over a period of two months. Requests for participation were digitally distributed together with the questionnaires via the email system of the academic institution where the participants were enrolled. Our method was convenience sampling. Participating students were first required to read a form and consent to participate in the research; subsequently, they were asked to complete a demographic questionnaire and the main questionnaires, which took about 10 minutes. The opening instructions described the background of the research and assured the participants that their responses would be confidential and anonymous; the names of the researchers and various contact methods were also provided. Additionally, it was explained to the participants that they could withdraw from the study at any moment. Participation in the study was voluntary and did not include any financial remuneration.

Statistical Analysis

We first assessed the internal consistency of the measurement scales using reliability analysis. We conducted several statistical tests following the reliability analysis to address our research questions. Initially, we employed Pearson correlation analyses to explore the relationships among the three main variables: PsyCap, academic procrastination, and academic adjustment. These analyses included intra- and inter-correlations and were stratified by participant group (mothers and non-mothers). Subsequently, we performed independent-samples t-tests to compare the means of PsyCap, procrastination, and academic adjustment for student mothers and non-mothers. For the mediation analysis related to the third research question, we utilized the PROCESS macro for SPSS, specifying PsyCap as the independent variable, academic adjustment as the dependent variable, and procrastination as the mediator. The significance of the indirect effect was tested using a bootstrapping method with 5,000 resamples to generate 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

We focused on mothers in academia, seeking to understand whether these students differ from non-mothers in their PsyCap, level of procrastination, and academic adjustment. Table 4 shows the three questionnaire averages by participant group (mother/non-mother).

Table 4

Questionnaire Averages for PsyCap, Procrastination, and Academic Adjustment by Participant Group (standard deviations in parentheses)
Variables	Subscale	Mother	Non-Mother	All
Procrastination	Total	2.97 (0.78)	2.90 (0.78)	2.95 (.78)
Academic Adjustment	Achievement	6.34 (1.28)	6.07 (1.01)	6.27 (1.21)
	Social	5.27 (1.46)	5.58 (1.44)	5.36 (1.46)
	Emotional	5.96 (1.87)	5.40 (1.72)	5.81 (1.84)
	Institutional	6.24 (1.50)	5.97 (1.43)	6.18 (1.48)
	Total	5.96 (1.10)	5.77 (1.01)	5.90 (1.08)
PsyCap	Self-efficacy	3.79 (0.80)	3.54 (0.75)	3.72 (0.79)
	Hope	3.65 (0.72)	3.78 (0.62)	3.69 (0.70)
	Optimism	3.73 (0.67)	3.65 (0.63)	3.70 (0.67)
	Resilience	3.71 (0.78)	3.55 (0.77)	3.67 (0.79)
	Total	3.72 (0.60)	3.65 (0.55)	3.70 (0.59)
Note: PsyCap questionnaire, range 1–5; Academic Adjustment questionnaire, range 1–9; Procrastination questionnaire, range 1–5.

The first research question was designed to investigate a possible relationship among the three study variables. We hypothesized a positive correlation between PsyCap and academic adjustment and negative correlations between them and procrastination. The findings fully corroborated the hypothesis, demonstrating significant positive correlations between PsyCap and academic adjustment, r = .54, p < .001, and significant negative correlations between PsyCap and academic adjustment to procrastination, r=-.36, p < .001; r=-.47, p < .001, respectively. Tables 5 and 6 show the intra- and inter-correlations for PsyCap, procrastination and academic adjustment and correlations by participant group (mother/non-mother).

Table 5

Intra and Inter Pearson Correlations of PsyCap, Procrastination, and Academic Adjustment
	Scales	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Academic Adjustment	1. Achievement	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	2. Social	***.34	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	3. Emotional	***60.	***27.	1	-	-	-	-	-	-	-
	4. Institutional	***.43	***30.	***31.	1	-	-	-	-	-	-
	5. Total	***81.	***66.	***77.	***68.	1	-	-	-	-	-
PsyCap	6. Self-efficacy	***31.	***25.	***24.	11.	***31.	1	-	-	-	-
	7. Hope	***56.	***33.	***34.	***30.	***53.	***51.	1	-	-	-
	8. Optimism	***50.	***28.	***41.	***36.	***53.	***45.	***68.	1	-	-
	9. Resilience	***43.	**19.	***30.	***24.	***40.	***46.	***57.	***58.	1	-
	10. Total	***56.	***33.	***39.	***30.	***54.	***77.	***87.	***80.	***79.	1
11. Procrastination		***49.-	***29.-	***37.-	***22.-	***47.-	**21.-	***41.-	***30.-	***22.-	***36.-
* p < .001, p < .01, * p < .05

Table 6

Pearson Correlations of PsyCap, Procrastination, and Academic Adjustment by Participant Group
	Mother			Non-Mother
Scales	1	2	3	1	2	3
1. Academic Adjustment	1	-	-	1	-	-
2. PsyCap	57***.	1	-	***46.	1	-
3. Procrastination	***49.-	***39.-	1	***44.-	**31.-	1
* p < .001, p < .01, * p < .05

The second research question explored possible differences between student mothers and non-mothers in their PsyCap, procrastination, and academic adjustment. We hypothesized student mothers would have higher levels of academic procrastination but the same level of PsyCap and academic adjustment as their comparators. Three t-test analyses partially confirmed this hypothesis (Table 7).

Table 7

Differences between Mothers and Non-Mothers in Study Variables (N = 216)
Variables	Mother (n = 156)	Non-Mother (n = 60)
Variables	M (SD)		t (214), p	Cohen's d
PsyCap	3.72 (.60)	3.65 (.55)	− .745, p = .213	0.59
Procrastination	2.97 (.78)	2.90 (.78)	− .601, p = .774	0.78
Academic Adjustment	5.96 (1.10)	5.77 (1.01)	-1.14, p = .250	1.08

Our third research question asked if procrastination was a mediator of PsyCap and academic adjustment. We hypothesized procrastination would mediate the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment for both mothers and non-mothers. That is, the higher the PsyCap, the lower the student's procrastination, and consequently, the higher the student’s academic adjustment. To test this hypothesis, we used a PROCESS procedure (Fig. 1). PsyCap was the independent variable, academic adjustment was the dependent variable, and procrastination was the mediator.

Results showed a direct, negative, and statistically significant relationship between PsyCap and procrastination, B=-0.474, S.E.=0.083, CI; -0.639 - -0.309, and a direct, negative, and statistically significant relationship between procrastination and academic adjustment, B=-0.444, S.E.=0.080, CI; -0.603 - -0.286. The direct effect of PsyCap on academic adjustment was statistically significant, B = 0.775, S.E.=0.105, CI; 0.567–0.983.

To test the significance of the indirect effect in the analysis, we employed a bootstrapping technique, utilising 5,000 resamples, to generate 95% CIs. Indirect effects in which zero is not included in the 95% CI indicate a significant effect at α < .05. Tests of the indirect effect of PsyCap on academic adjustment via procrastination were significant, B = 0.211, S.E.= 0.058, CI; 0.109–0.334.

The first research question explored potential relationships among three key variables: PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination. We hypothesized PsyCap would positively correlate with academic adjustment and negatively correlate with procrastination in both research groups (mothers/non-mothers). The findings supported this hypothesis, revealing significant positive correlations between PsyCap and academic adjustment, alongside significant negative correlations between PsyCap and procrastination. Previous research has found positive PsyCap enables mothers to pursue their educational goals and persevere despite challenges (Machín-Rincón et al., 2020). A study by Navarro-Cruz et al. (2021) found student mothers frequently face academic difficulties but those with higher PsyCap manage their academic and personal demands more effectively. Other research has found procrastination negatively impacts students' emotional well-being and academic adjustment. Higher self-regulation levels are associated with reduced procrastination and negative academic emotions, thereby enhancing overall academic satisfaction and adjustment (Balkis & Duru, 2016). In summary, our work and previous work indicates a significant relationship between PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination. The positive correlation between PsyCap and academic adjustment emphasizes the value of psychological resources in enhancing student performance and well-being.

The second research question targeted possible differences between student mothers and non-mothers in their PsyCap, procrastination, and academic adjustment. We hypothesized student mothers would have higher levels of academic procrastination but the same level of PsyCap and academic adjustment as non-mothers. The findings partially supported this hypothesis. One explanation for the lack of differences between the groups can be the fact that most participants who were mothers were studying for advanced degrees (MA and PhD). The structure of these studies is more organized and defined, possibly making it easier for mothers to organize and balance home and family life with academic requirements. These students are also better acquainted with academic life and the academic framework than students in a BA program. This facilitates adjustment, the tendency not to postpone tasks, and the connection to the academic framework. Previous studies found mothers cope better with the demands of home, raising children, and couplehood, in addition to academic demands, if they have an extensive support network (Crabb & Ekberg, 2014). These mothers are more successful in their studies and cope successfully with the multiple demands, contributing to their academic success and personal well-being (Cohen-Miller & Demers, 2019; Navarro-Cruz et al., 2021). Another possible explanation is that mothers in higher education, especially those in advanced programs, can establish and maintain substantial social support systems. This support helps them procrastinate less, enhances their PsyCap, and improves their academic adjustment. Previous research found student mothers with high PsyCap have extensive social support networks, which enable them to maximize their abilities within the educational framework (Yue et al., 2023). Furthermore, positive PsyCap as a personal resource empowers mothers to pursue their goals, such as studying and persevering in their achievements, even when they encounter challenges (Machín-Rincón et al., 2020). Social networks also provide significant benefits in navigating the complexities of educational systems and supporting both academic and personal growth (Jo, 2022). Titania and Djamhoer (2023) found well-adjusted academic mothers tend to procrastinate less, particularly in structured environments with clear expectations and support.

Our findings showed student mothers and non-mothers had similar levels of PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination. We suggest this can be explained by several interrelated factors. Both groups benefit from social support systems, which provide essential emotional and practical assistance, thereby helping them to manage academic responsibilities effectively (Saman & Wirawan, 2021). Additionally, high levels of PsyCap, including self-efficacy, optimism, hope, and resilience, are crucial for maintaining motivation and overcoming challenges, and these traits are found in mothers and non-mothers alike (Luthans et al., 2007). The structured nature of academic programs, with clear goals and deadlines, helps all students reduce procrastination and improve time management (Schunk & Zimmerman, 2012). Finally, effective work-life balance strategies and strong self-regulation skills have been found to contribute equally to the academic success of all learners (Zimmerman, 2002). These factors collectively ensure mothers in academia do not differ significantly from their peers in terms of procrastination, PsyCap, and academic adjustment.

Our third research question considered procrastination as a possible mediator in the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment. We hypothesized procrastination would mediate the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment in both research groups. The results fully confirmed this hypothesis. Participants with higher PsyCap had lower levels of academic procrastination, which, in turn, positively influenced their academic adjustment. This aligns with previous findings that PsyCap contributes to an improved academic experience (Saman & Wirawan, 2021), higher academic achievement (Luthans et al., 2012), and more successful academic adjustment (Hazan-Liran, 2023; Hazan-Liran & Miller, 2019).

PsyCap's influence on academic outcomes can be attributed to its ability to encourage students to adopt more effective coping styles (Saman &Wirawan, 2021). Among these adaptive coping styles is the tendency to avoid academic procrastination; this has been associated with higher levels of PsyCap (Hicks & Wu, 2015). Avoiding procrastination fosters persistence, motivation, and enhanced feelings of well-being and satisfaction with one's field of study, thereby contributing to successful academic adaptation (McKenzie & Schweitzer, 2001; van Rooij, Ferguson et al., 2018). Mishra (2020) found that social support significantly influences academic success and reduces procrastination among student mothers. Webber and Dismore (2021) highlighted that effective work-life balance strategies and self-regulation skills contribute equally to the academic success of both mothers and non-mothers. In summary, our research suggests procrastination is a mediator in the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment for student mothers and non-mothers alike. Higher PsyCap leads to lower procrastination, which enhances academic adjustment. This underscores the importance of developing PsyCap to improve academic outcomes.

The study examined the relationships among three key variables, PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination, in a sample of Israeli student mothers and non-mothers. We hypothesized PsyCap would positively correlate with academic adjustment and negatively correlate with procrastination in both groups. The findings supported this hypothesis, revealing significant positive correlations between PsyCap and academic adjustment and significant negative correlations between PsyCap and procrastination. Mothers and non-mothers in academic settings had similar levels of PsyCap, academic adjustment, and procrastination. Those with higher PsyCap exhibited lower levels of academic procrastination, which, in turn, positively influenced their academic adjustment. These findings suggest interventions aimed at increasing PsyCap could improve academic outcomes and adjustment while reducing procrastination. Such interventions might be particularly useful for student mothers, given their unique challenges.

Implications

The study highlights the critical role of PsyCap in enhancing academic adjustment. High PsyCap fosters effective coping styles, reducing procrastination and improving academic adjustment. The findings suggest institutions should consider implementing programs that enhance PsyCap among students, particularly mothers, to support their academic journey. Providing social support systems and structured academic environments can further aid in reducing procrastination and improving overall academic outcomes for all students. Finally, the study showed procrastination is a mediator in the relationship between PsyCap and academic adjustment, underlining the importance of addressing procrastination to improve academic success.

Limitations and Future Research

The study's limitations include its reliance on self-reported data, which may be subject to biases such as social desirability. In addition, the sample size and demographic diversity may limit the generalizability of the findings. Future research should consider longitudinal studies to examine the long-term effects of PsyCap on academic adjustment and procrastination. Expanding the research to include diverse populations and different educational contexts may provide a more comprehensive understanding of these relationships. Furthermore, investigating the impact of specific interventions aimed at enhancing PsyCap could yield practical insights into improving academic outcomes for student mothers and other groups. It would also be beneficial to explore the specific mechanisms through which PsyCap influences procrastination and academic adjustment in different demographic groups.

Funding

No funding.

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests

No Conflicts of interest.

Availability of data and material (data transparency)

Not applicable.

Code availability (software application or custom code)

Not applicable.

Additional declarations for articles in life science journals that report the results of studies involving humans and/or animals

Not applicable.

Ethics approval

The Internal Review Board (IRB) of The Hai College approved the study design, in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki

Consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Author's Contribution

All authors shared equally

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The Role of Psychological Capital in Academic Procrastination and Adjustment Among Mothers in Higher Education

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

PsyCap

Academic Adjustment

Academic Adjustment Among Mothers

Academic Procrastination

Academic Procrastination Among Student Mothers

The Present Study

Method

Participants

Instruments

Demographic and Academic Information

PsyCap Questionnaire

Academic Adjustment Questionnaire (AAQ)

Academic Procrastination Questionnaire

Study Procedure

Statistical Analysis

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Implications

Limitations and Future Research

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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