1.1 Background
With less than 60% of the global average in annual precipitation, South Africa is a semi-arid, water-stressed nation [1]. In South Africa, the effects of local and global climate change are visible in terms of finances (economic factors), people (social factors), and the environment, especially in areas where water resources are most in demand [2].
Groundwater is an integral resource that supports environmental and socioeconomic systems worldwide. It offers a broad range of varied services, referred to as ecosystem services, namely the conditions and processes by which natural systems maintain and fulfill human life [1]. Since groundwater is a significant supply of freshwater, groundwater allocation and protection have gained importance in many places of South Africa [3]. In addition to supporting industrial and agricultural irrigation plans, and lowering poverty, and preserving significant aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, groundwater has the potential to play a critical role in the provision of water for drinking and sanitation. [1].
Aquifer management is a critical component of sustainable water resource management, particularly in regions reliant on groundwater for various socio-economic activities. Such an argument is supported by [4] who noted that water resources are currently facing variable and unpredictable challenges globally that are mainly manifested in different aspects [5]. Effective management strategies must not only consider inherent strengths and weaknesses but also address environmental uncertainties and socio-political dynamics that shape water governance [5]. Broadening the scope of aquifer risk management by integrating SWOT analysis with themes such as environmental uncertainties, water politics, quantification challenges, and data governance is integral to water resource management. A semi-quantitative SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, Threats) analysis extends as a strategic tool to intertwine the intricate physical processes and multifaceted influences affecting aquifers [1].
Groundwater plays a crucial role in sustaining ecosystems, supporting agriculture, and fulfilling domestic and industrial water needs [6]. However, increasing demand coupled with unstainable extraction practices poses significant challenges to aquifer sustainability [7]. In the B60D quaternary catchment of the Olifants Water Management Area, these challenges are particularly pronounced, necessitating the implementation of robust risk management strategies. Prior research has extensively examined the complexities of aquifer management, often focusing on technical aspects and economic considerations. However, recent scholarship has underscored the need to integrate environmental uncertainties into risk management frameworks [8]. Furthermore, the politics of water governance have garnered increasing attention, highlighting the influence of power dynamics and diverse narratives on decision-making processes [9]. The politics of water governance shape decision-making processes and resource allocation, often reflecting competing interests and power asymmetries [7].
1.2 Groundwater demand management
1.2.1 Roles in Groundwater Demand Management
Effective groundwater demand management requires collaboration and coordination among various stakeholders, including government agencies, water utilities, agricultural organizations, industries, communities, and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) [10]. Each stakeholder plays a distinct role in the management process, ranging from policy formulation and regulatory enforcement to community engagement and technological innovation. Understanding the roles and responsibilities of different actors is essential for developing integrated and inclusive groundwater management strategies [10].
1.2.2 Groundwater Demand Management Strategies
Water Demand Management (WDM) aims to influence water demand to ensure equitable, efficient, and sustainable water consumption levels [11]. It involves strategies such as price or non-price measures to curb inessential or low-use water consumption, thereby maximizing the utility of available water resources [12]. Integrated Watershed Management (IWM) is a comprehensive approach that addresses ecological, social, and economic concerns within a watershed. It integrates various aspects of watershed management, encourages stakeholder participation, and employs adaptive management to respond to changing environmental conditions [12].
Groundwater demand management encompasses a diverse set of strategies aimed at reducing water demand, enhancing water use efficiency, and protecting groundwater quality.
Implementation Strategies for WDM include:
- Resource Protection and Increased Production: WDM provides incentives such as resource protection and increased production, offering a sound basis for planning and water loss reduction [12]
- Regulation and Enforcement: Enforcing groundwater regulations, permitting systems, and zoning ordinances to control groundwater extraction rates, protect vulnerable aquifers, and prevent overexploitation. [12]
- Demand Reduction: Encouraging water conservation practices, promoting efficient irrigation techniques, and implementing water pricing mechanisms to discourage wasteful consumption. [12]
- Stakeholder Engagement: Facilitating stakeholder participation in groundwater management decision-making processes, fostering cooperation, and building consensus among diverse interest groups. [12]
- Monitoring and Assessment: Establishing robust monitoring networks, conducting hydrogeological assessments, and utilizing modeling tools to track groundwater levels, quality trends, and potential impacts of management interventions. [12]
The National Strategy Framework in South Africa aims to improve water-use efficiency across all sectors. It guides the implementation of key principles and frameworks for water conservation and demand management, integrating legislative, economic, and social aspects [13].
Such economic concepts include:
- water pricing which is utilized as an effective tool to promote efficient water usage by influencing consumption patterns through tiered pricing systems. This approach encourages consumers to adopt water-saving habits, which can lead to reduced water bills and enhanced overall water supply [14].
- Water reuse and recycling involve treating and repurposing wastewater for various applications such as irrigation and industrial use. This strategy maximizes water utility, conserves water resources, and reduces the environmental impact of water usage [14].
- Leak Detection Technologies and public awareness campaigns are crucial for optimizing water resources in urban areas. These innovations manage water t demand effectively before considering the expansion of supply [15]
- Policies set forth rules for effective and efficient water conservation and demand management measures. They emphasize that water is a strategic, precious, and scarce resource, and any waste of water is not tolerated. All consumptive water use should be measured and accounted for [16]
- Water audits are mandatory for bulk water users, requiring them to undertake monthly and annual audits to assess and optimize their water usage. This helps in identifying inefficiencies and potential areas for water conservation [16]
1.2.3. State of Knowledge in Groundwater Demand Management
Despite significant advancements in groundwater science and management practices, several knowledge gaps and challenges persist. These include limited understanding of groundwater-surface water interactions, uncertainties associated with climate change impacts on groundwater resources, and insufficient data on groundwater use and abstraction patterns [17]. Addressing these knowledge gaps requires interdisciplinary research efforts, capacity building initiatives, and knowledge sharing platforms to inform evidence-based decision-making and policy development [17].
1.2.4. Groundwater Conservation
Groundwater conservation can be defined as the prudent management and utilization of groundwater resources to ensure their long-term availability and sustainability. At its core, groundwater conservation seeks to balance the extraction of groundwater with natural recharge rates, minimizing depletion and degradation of aquifers [17]. The conceptual framework of groundwater conservation incorporates principles of hydrology, ecology, economics, and governance, recognizing the interconnectedness of groundwater systems with surface water, ecosystems, and human societies. Key concepts such as sustainable yield, aquifer recharge, groundwater-dependent ecosystems, and conjunctive management guide conservation efforts and inform decision-making processes [18].
Groundwater conservation encompasses a range of strategies and practices aimed at preserving and enhancing the quantity and quality of groundwater resources [17]. As global demand for freshwater continues to rise, particularly in arid and semi-arid regions, the importance of effective groundwater conservation becomes increasingly apparent. This paper explores the fundamental concepts underlying groundwater conservation, examines different models and methods utilized for its implementation, and assesses the challenges and opportunities associated with conservation efforts [18].
1.2.4.1 Models and Methods of Groundwater Conservation
- Sustainable Yield Assessment: Quantifying the maximum rate of groundwater extraction that can be sustained over the long term without depleting aquifer storage or compromising water quality. Sustainable yield assessments utilize hydrological models, groundwater monitoring data, and scenario analysis to estimate groundwater recharge rates, extraction limits, and safe yield thresholds [14].
- Aquifer Recharge Enhancement: Implementing measures to augment natural recharge processes and replenish depleted aquifers. Aquifer recharge enhancement techniques include managed aquifer recharge (MAR) methods such as infiltration basins, injection wells, and recharge ponds, as well as watershed management practices that promote infiltration and groundwater recharge [16]
- Water Use Efficiency Improvements: Promoting water conservation and efficiency measures to reduce overall water demand and minimize reliance on groundwater resources. Water use efficiency improvements encompass agricultural practices such as drip irrigation, precision farming, and soil moisture monitoring, as well as urban water conservation measures such as leak detection, water recycling, and demand management programs [14]
- Land Use Planning and Regulation: Integrating groundwater considerations into land use planning processes and implementing zoning regulations, land use controls, and development restrictions to minimize land use practices that contribute to groundwater depletion and contamination. Land use planning strategies may include groundwater protection zones, setback requirements, and land conservation easements to safeguard recharge areas and sensitive groundwater resources [16]
- Community Engagement and Stakeholder Participation: Fostering community involvement and stakeholder collaboration in groundwater conservation initiatives through education, outreach, and participatory decision-making processes. Community-based approaches to groundwater conservation empower local residents, indigenous communities, and water users to contribute to resource management efforts and implement grassroots conservation projects [13]
1.2.4.2. Challenges and Opportunities
Groundwater conservation efforts face numerous challenges, including inadequate data availability, competing water demands, institutional barriers, and socio-economic constraints. Balancing the needs of different stakeholders, addressing equity concerns, and reconciling short-term economic interests with long-term sustainability goals pose significant challenges to effective groundwater conservation [19]. However, there are also opportunities to leverage emerging technologies, innovative financing mechanisms, and collaborative governance approaches to overcome these challenges and advance groundwater conservation objectives.
1.2.5. Aquifer risk
Aquifers play a critical role in global water security, supplying drinking water, sustaining ecosystems, and supporting economic activities. However, the rapid growth of human populations, intensification of land use practices, and industrialization have placed unprecedented pressure on aquifer systems, leading to increased vulnerability to various risks. This paper investigates the interconnected challenges of overpopulation, pollution, over-pumping, and misuse, highlighting their cumulative impacts on aquifer health and resilience.
1.2.5.1. Overpopulation and Aquifer Risk:
Rapid population growth exacerbates water demand, leading to increased stress on aquifers and heightened risk of depletion. Urbanization, migration, and demographic shifts further strain aquifer resources, particularly in densely populated regions with limited alternative water sources. The concentration of population in coastal areas and megacities amplifies the risk of saltwater intrusion and subsidence, threatening aquifer integrity and freshwater availability for millions of people.
1.2.5.2. Aquifer misuse and mismanagement
Aquifers are susceptible to contamination from various sources, including industrial activities, agricultural runoff, and improper waste disposal. Pollutants such as nitrates, pesticides, heavy metals, and emerging contaminants pose serious risks to groundwater quality, compromising its suitability for drinking, irrigation, and ecological functions [19]. Contaminated aquifers not only endanger public health but also impose significant economic burdens through remediation costs and loss of ecosystem services. Excessive groundwater extraction, driven by agricultural, municipal, and industrial demands, also contribute to aquifer depletion and groundwater level decline. Over-pumping leads to reduced aquifer storage capacity, land subsidence, and seawater intrusion in coastal aquifers. The depletion of groundwater reserves undermines water security, exacerbates drought vulnerability, and jeopardizes the sustainability of ecosystems dependent on groundwater resources.
Inefficient water use practices, lack of regulatory enforcement, and unsustainable extraction policies contribute to aquifer misuse and mismanagement. Groundwater overdraft, illegal abstraction, and unregulated well drilling exacerbate aquifer risk, perpetuating cycles of resource degradation and social inequity. The absence of integrated water management frameworks and inadequate governance structures further exacerbate aquifer challenges, hindering efforts to achieve sustainable groundwater management.
The cumulative impacts of overpopulation, pollution, over-pumping, and misuse pose significant challenges to aquifer sustainability and resilience. Addressing aquifer risk requires integrated approaches that encompass demand management, pollution prevention, aquifer recharge enhancement, and stakeholder engagement. Policy interventions such as water pricing mechanisms, land use regulations, pollution control measures, and groundwater monitoring networks can help mitigate aquifer risk and promote sustainable groundwater management practices. Public awareness campaigns, capacity-building initiatives, and community-based conservation efforts are essential for fostering stewardship and promoting collective action to safeguard aquifer resources for future generations.
1.3 Environmental Uncertainties as Constraints and Resources
Aquifer risk management is inherently influenced by environmental uncertainties, which present both constraints and opportunities for sustainable water usage. The variability in hydrological patterns, exacerbated by climate change, poses significant challenges to groundwater replenishment and availability. However, these uncertainties also necessitate adaptive strategies that recognize the dynamic nature of aquifer systems and leverage alternative water sources, such as reclaimed water and stormwater harvesting. By integrating environmental risk assessments into SWOT analyses, stakeholders can identify potential vulnerabilities and develop mitigation measures to enhance aquifer resilience.
1.4 SWOT application in groundwater management
1.4.1. SWOT Concepts in General
SWOT analysis involves the identification of internal strengths and weaknesses within an organization or system, alongside external opportunities and threats. Strengths and weaknesses pertain to internal factors that are within the control of the organization, whereas opportunities and threats are external factors that may impact the organization. SWOT analysis provides a systematic approach to assess these factors and develop strategies to capitalize on strengths, mitigate weaknesses, seize opportunities, and address threats.
1.4.2 Worldwide Application Examples of SWOT to Water and Groundwater
Numerous studies have applied SWOT analysis to water resource management at various scales globally. For instance, in the context of groundwater management, SWOT analysis has been utilized to assess water quality, quantify available resources, identify pollution sources, and evaluate management strategies. Case studies from different regions highlight the versatility of SWOT analysis in addressing complex water challenges and informing sustainable management practices.
1.4.3 Local African Examples of SWOT to Groundwater or Water
In Africa, where access to clean water is often a challenge, SWOT analysis has been employed to assess the status of groundwater resources and develop tailored management plans [20]. Case studies from countries such as Kenya, Nigeria, and South Africa demonstrate the applicability of SWOT analysis in identifying specific challenges, such as overexploitation, pollution, and inadequate infrastructure, while also highlighting opportunities for improved governance, community involvement, and technological innovation [20].
1.4.4 Future Direction and Predictions of SWOT Use in Groundwater Space
Looking ahead, the integration of SWOT analysis with advanced modeling techniques, remote sensing technologies, and stakeholder engagement approaches holds promise for enhancing groundwater management practices [21]. Predictive modeling based on SWOT-derived insights can aid in scenario planning and adaptive management strategies, thereby improving resilience to future uncertainties such as climate change and population growth [21].
Water allocation is not merely a technical issue, but a deeply political process shaped by competing interests and narratives. The allocation of groundwater resources often reflects power dynamics, socioeconomic disparities, and historical injustices, leading to contentious debates over resource ownership and distribution. Moreover, the framing of water issues through diverse narratives, such as notions of scarcity or abundance, influences policy priorities and decision-making processes. By acknowledging the inherent political dimensions of aquifer management, stakeholders can foster inclusive governance structures that prioritize equitable access to water resources and address underlying power imbalances. For the sustainable management of groundwater, collaboration between different agencies is essential. This collaborative approach helps in aligning various management strategies and enhancing the overall effectiveness of water conservation efforts [22].