3.1 Soil and Manure Analysis
The soil analysis conducted at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) in Nairobi revealed a pH of 6.00 for the Nairobi Ndogo site and 8.00 for Kairini farm. The total nitrogen content was 0.11% at Nairobi Ndogo and 0.07% at Kairini farm. Organic carbon content was 1.10% at Nairobi Ndogo and 1.00% at Kairini farm. Available phosphorus levels were 25.00 ppm for Nairobi Ndogo and 11.00 ppm for Kairini farm. Total zinc content was 1.00 ppm at both sites (Table 2). The soil at Nairobi Ndogo was slightly acidic, whereas at Kairini farm, it was medium alkaline before planting. Both sites had low levels of total soil nitrogen, available phosphorus, and zinc.
Table 2
Results of soil analysis from the two experimental sites before planting
Site | Properties | Value | Class |
---|
Nairobi Ndogo | Soil pH | 6 | slight acid |
Total Nitrogen (%) | 0.11 | low |
Total Org. Carbon (%) | 1.10 | low |
Phosphorus (ppm) | 25 | medium |
Potassium (meq%) | 1.00 | adequate |
Zinc (ppm) | 1 | low |
Kairini Farm | Soil pH | 8 | medium alkaline |
Total Nitrogen (%) | 0.07 | low |
Total Org. Carbon (%) | 1 | low |
Phosphorus (ppm) | 11.0 | low |
Potassium (meq%) | 1 | adequate |
Zinc (ppm) | 1 | low |
Total nitrogen analysis measures the amount of nitrogen present in both organic and inorganic forms, but it does not directly indicate the nitrogen available to plants. Typically, soil contains about 0.10 to 0.15 percent nitrogen, but only 1 to 4 percent of this total nitrogen becomes available to plants during a growing season, as it transforms from organic to inorganic form through microbial action. Soil phosphorus concentrations can range from low to high: below 20 ppm is considered low, 20 to 40 ppm is medium, 40 to 100 ppm is high, and above 100 ppm is excessive. Similarly, soil potassium concentrations also range from low to high: below 0.4 meq% is low, 0.4 to 0.6 meq% is medium, 0.6 to 2.0 meq% is high, and above 2.0 meq% is excessive. For most crops, a soil zinc test concentration over 1.5 ppm, measured using the DTPA extraction method, is considered adequate (Lindsay et al., 1978). During the trials, the average nutritional composition of cattle manure was utilized. Analyses of the cattle manure showed that the total nitrogen and zinc content were adequate, while phosphorus and potassium levels were rated low (Table 3).
Table 3
Results for the cattle manure analysis
Properties | Value | Class |
---|
Nitrogen (%) | 1 | adequate |
Phosphorus (%) | 0 | low |
Potassium (%) | 0 | low |
Calcium (%) | 0 | low |
Zinc (mg/kg) | 21 | adequate |
3.2 The Effect of Integrated Soil Fertility Management Practices on Yield and Yield Components of Sorghum and Green grams
A test model adequacy on sorghum yield and yield components revealed that the fitted model was adequate (p < 0.05) in explaining the effect of treatments on stover yield, number of panicles, and grain yield for the two sites. The study showed significant site effect (p < 0.05) and interaction between the site and the treatments (p < 0.05) on stover yield, number of panicles, and grain yield. The analysis of variance for the effect of each factor and their combined effect showed that the factors and treatments had significant effects (p < 0.05) on these yield components (Table 4).
The effect of fertilizer application showed stover yield ranging from 0.75 t/ha to 0.03 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 5.42 t/ha to 1.43 t/ha at Kairini farm. Plots with NPK plus zinc fertilizer had the highest stover yield at both sites. The number of panicles ranged from 195.33 to 83.11 at Nairobi Ndogo and 273.44 to 257.33 at Kairini farm, with the highest numbers in plots with mavuno fertilizer and NPK plus zinc fertilizer, respectively. Grain yield ranged from 0.38 t/ha to 0.08 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 2.91 t/ha to 0.56 t/ha at Kairini farm, with the highest yields in plots with NPK plus zinc fertilizer and NPK fertilizer, respectively. The effect of cropping system showed stover yield ranging from 1.06 t/ha to 0.06 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 5.92 t/ha to 2.18 t/ha at Kairini farm, with MBILI intercropping technique yielding the highest at both sites. The number of panicles ranged from 143.18 to 82.67 at Nairobi Ndogo and 257.12 to 252.78 at Kairini farm. Grain yield ranged from 0.31 t/ha to 0.16 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 63 t/ha to 2.31 t/ha at Kairini farm, with conventional intercropping technique yielding the highest at both sites.
A further adequacy test on sorghum yield and components confirmed the model's appropriateness (p < 0.05). Significant site effect (p < 0.05) and interaction between site and treatments (p < 0.05) were noted (Table 5). Factors and treatments significantly affected stover yield, number of panicles, and grain yield. The treatment effects showed mean stover yields from 1.93 t/ha to 0.28 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 7.18 t/ha to 1.35 t/ha at Kairini farm, with MBILI intercropping technique and NPK fertilizer yielding the highest.
Table 4
Means for effect of types of fertilizer application and cropping systems on sorghum stover yield, number of panicles and grain yield at two sites
| Factor | Stover yield | Number of panicles | Grain yield |
---|
Nairobi Ndogo | NPK + Zn | 0.75a* | 186.56b | 0.38a |
| Mavuno | 0.50b | 195.33a | 0.19b |
| NPK + CM | 1.15c | 140.67c | 0.13d |
| CM | 0.28e | 137.33d | 0.08f |
| NPK | 1.04d | 83.11e | 0.17c |
| Control | 0.03f | 84.00e | 0.11e |
| LSD | 0.51 | 1.26 | 0.05 |
| Mono S | 0.60c | 143.18a | 0.16c |
| Conv S + G | 0.74b | 142.50a | 0.31a |
| MBILI S + G | 1.06a | 82.67b | 0.19b |
| LSD | 0.32 | 0.80 | 0.03 |
Kairini farm | NPK + Zn | 5.42b | 273.44a | 2.43b |
| NPK + CM | 2.60c | 257.67c | 1.23c |
| NPK | 5.63a | 265.67b | 2.91a |
| Mavuno | 2.58d | 254.67c | 0.82d |
| CM | 2.20e | 257.33c | 0.76e |
| Control | 1.43f | 225.44d | 0.56f |
| LSD | 0.51 | 4.40 | 0.57 |
| MBILI S + G | 5.92a | 252.78b | 2.31b |
| Mono S | 2.18c | 254.40ab | 0.95c |
| Conv S + G | 5.07b | 257.12a | 2.63a |
| LSD | 0.30 | 2.79 | 0.34 |
*Means followed by same letter along the column for each treatment are not significantly different from each other at 5% probability level. Where: NPK = Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium fertilizer; Zn = Zinc; S = Sorghum; G = Green grams; Conv = Conventional intercropping; MBILI = Managing Beneficial Interaction in Legume Intercrops; CM = Cattle Manure; Mono = Monocrop; Control = without fertilizer; LSD = Least Significant Different; CV = Coefficient of variation; R2 = R-Squared |
The number of panicles ranged from 240.67 to 54.00 at Nairobi Ndogo and 290.75 to 193.67 at Kairini farm, highest in monocrop sorghum with NPK plus zinc fertilizer at Nairobi Ndogo and conventional intercropping with NPK plus zinc fertilizer at Kairini. Grain yield ranged from 0.68 t/ha to 0.08 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 4.01 t/ha to 0.25 t/ha at Kairini farm, highest in conventional intercropping with NPK plus zinc fertilizer at Nairobi Ndogo and conventional intercropping with NPK fertilizer at Kairini. The study findings indicated that integrated soil fertility management significantly affects stover yield, number of panicles, and grain yield at both sites. The observed differences between the sites could be attributed to variations in rainfall during the planting seasons with Nairobi Ndogo experiencing long rains and Kairini short rains. A test of model adequacy for green gram yields indicated that the fitted model was adequate (p < 0.05) in explaining the effect of treatments on stand count, grain yield, and stover yield at both study sites.
Table 5
Means for effect of treatments on sorghum stover yield, number of panicles, grain yield at Nairobi Ndogo and Kairini sites
Treatment | | Stover yield | Number of panicles | Grain yield |
---|
Nairobi Ndogo | | | | |
NPK + Zn + Mono S | | 0.63d* | 240.67a | 0.25b |
NPK + Conv S + G | | 0.71cd | 198.75b | 0.18c |
NPK + Zn + Conv S + G | | 0.92c | 183.00c | 0.68a |
Mavuno + Mono S | | 0.50b | 195.33b | 0.19c |
NPK + Zn + Mbili S + G | | 0.71cd | 136.00e | 0.22b |
NPK + Mbili S + G | | 1.93a | 58.00i | 0.13d |
NPK + CM + Mono S | | 1.15b | 140.67d | 0.13de |
Control + Mono S | | 0.57de | 95.33g | 0.09e |
CM + Mono S | | 0.28d | 137.33e | 0.08f |
NPK + Mono S | | 0.48f | 89.50h | 0.19e |
Control + Mbili S + G | | 0.53de | 54.00j | 0.22b |
Control + Conv S + G | | 0.61d | 102.67e | 0.08f |
LSD | | 0.63 | 1.55 | 0.06 |
CV | | 10.42 | 4.09 | 4.09 |
R2 | | 0.97 | 1.00 | 1.00 |
Kairini Farm | | | | |
NPK + Zn + Conv S + G | | 6.95b | 290.75a | 3.62b |
NPK + Conv S + G | | 6.36d | 276.67ab | 4.01a |
NPK + Zn + MBILI S + G | | 6.82c | 276.67b | 0.92c |
NPK + MBILI S + G | | 7.18a | 262.33cd | 3.01c |
NPK + CM + Mono S | | 2.60g | 257.67cde | 1.23d |
Mavuno + Mono S | | 2.58g | 254.67e | 0.82e |
NPK + Zn + Mono S | | 2.46d | 277.00b | 0.68g |
Control + Mono S | | 1.35i | 263.33c | 0.80ef |
CM + Mono S | | 2.35f | 257.33ab | 0.75f |
NPK + Mono S | | 3.35f | 220.50f | 1.42c |
Control + MBILI S + G | | 3.76e | 219.33g | 0.62h |
Control + Conv S + G | | 1.91h | 193.67h | 0.25i |
LSD | | 0.76 | 5.44 | 0.62 |
CV | | 2.70 | 1.24 | 5.37 |
R2 | | 1.00 | 0.99 | 1.00 |
*Means followed by same letter along the column for each treatment are not significantly different from each other at 5% probability level. Where: NPK = Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium fertilizer; Zn = Zinc; S = Sorghum; G = Green grams; Conv = Conventional intercropping; MBILI = Managing Beneficial Interaction in Legume Intercrops; CM = Cattle Manure; Mono = Monocrop; Control = without fertilizer; LSD = Least Significant Different; CV = Coefficient of variation; R2 = R-Squared |
Significant site’s effects (p < 0.05) and interactions between site and treatments (p < 0.05) were observed for stand count, grain yield, and stover yield (Table 6). Analyzing the effect of fertilizer application, stand count ranged from 388.00 to 239.78 at Nairobi Ndogo and 388.44 to 283.89 at Kairini farm. Plots treated with NPK fertilizer had the highest stand count at Nairobi Ndogo, while those with NPK plus Zinc fertilizer had the highest count at Kairini farm.
Table 6
Means for effect of types of fertilizer application and cropping systems on green gram stand count, grain yield, stover yield at Nairobi Ndogo and Kairini Sites
| Factor | Stand Count | Grain yield | Stover yield |
---|
Nairobi Ndogo | NPK + Zn | 239.78c* | 0.13b | 0.32a |
NPK | 388.00a | 0.16a | 0.28b |
Control | 357.56b | 0.13b | 0.22c |
LSD | 3.07 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
Mono G | 457.67a | 0.16b | 0.35a |
Conv S + G | 262.44b | 0.17a | 0.25b |
MBILI S + G | 265.22b | 0.09c | 0.21c |
LSD | 3.07 | 0.02 | 0.02 |
Kairini farm | NPK + Zn | 388.44a | 0.36c | 2.26c |
NPK | 281.00b | 0.47a | 3.01a |
Control | 283.89c | 0.52b | 2.72b |
LSD | 4.08 | 0.10 | 0.92 |
MBILI S + G | 222.11c | 0.24c | 1.61c |
Mono G | 474.00a | 0.79a | 4.25a |
Conv S + G | 257.22b | 0.32b | 2.14b |
LSD | 4.08 | 0.10 | 0.92 |
*Means followed by same letter along the column for each treatment are not significantly different from each other at 5% probability level. Where: NPK = Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium fertilizer; Zn = Zinc; S = Sorghum; G = Green grams; Conv = Conventional intercropping; MBILI = Managing Beneficial Interaction in Legume Intercrops; CM = Cattle Manure; Mono = Monocrop; Control = without fertilizer; LSD = Least Significant Different; CV = Coefficient of variation; R2 = R-Squared |
Grain yield ranged from 0.16 t/ha to 0.13 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 0.47 t/ha to 0.36 t/ha at Kairini farm. The highest grain yield was obtained with NPK plus Zinc fertilizer at Nairobi Ndogo and with NPK fertilizer at Kairini farm. Stover yield varied from 0.32 t/ha to 0.22 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 3.01 t/ha to 2.26 t/ha at Kairini farm. Plots treated with NPK plus Zinc fertilizer had the highest stover yield at Nairobi Ndogo, while those treated with NPK fertilizer had the highest yield at Kairini farm.
Examining the effect of cropping systems, stand count ranged from 457.67 to 262.44 at Nairobi Ndogo and 474.00 to 222.11 at Kairini farm. Monocrop green gram plots had the highest stand count at both sites. Grain yield ranged from 0.17 t/ha to 0.09 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 0.79 t/ha to 0.24 t/ha at Kairini farm. Conventional intercropping system yielded the highest grain yield at Nairobi Ndogo, while monocrop green gram had the highest yield at Kairini farm. Stover yield ranged from 0.35 t/ha to 0.21 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 4.25 t/ha to 1.61 t/ha at Kairini farm. Monocrop green gram plots had the highest stover yield at Nairobi Ndogo, while MBILI intercropping system had the highest yield at Kairini farm. Further assessment of model adequacy for green gram yields confirmed the suitability of the fitted model (p < 0.05) to explain the impact of treatments on stand count, grain yield, and stover yield across both study sites (Table 7). Significant sites effects (p < 0.05) and interactions between site and treatments (p < 0.05) were observed for stand count, grain yield, and stover yield.
Analyzing treatment effects, the mean stand count ranged from 582.67 to 16.00 at Nairobi Ndogo and 522.33 to 154.67 at Kairini farm. Monocrop green gram treated with NPK fertilizer exhibited the highest stand count at Nairobi Ndogo, while those treated with NPK plus Zinc fertilizer showed the highest count at Kairini farm. Grain yield varied from 0.22 t/ha to 0.07 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 1.07 t/ha to 0.11 t/ha at Kairini farm. Conventional intercropping with NPK fertilizer resulted in the highest grain yield at Nairobi Ndogo, while monocrop green gram with NPK fertilizer had the highest yield at Kairini farm. Stover yield mean ranged from 0.47 t/ha to 0.07 t/ha at Nairobi Ndogo and 6.70 t/ha to 1.62 t/ha at Kairini farm. Monocrop green gram treated with NPK fertilizer exhibited the highest stover yield at both sites.
Table 7
Means for effect of treatments on green gram stand count, grain yield, stover yield at Nairobi Ndogo and Kairini sites
Treatment | Stand Count | | Grain yield | Stover yield |
---|
Nairobi Ndogo | | | | |
NPK + Mono G | 582.67a* | | 0.09f | 0.47a |
NPK + Zn + Mono G | 300.33d | | 0.09f | 0.38b |
NPK + Zn + Conv S + G | 214.67g | | 0.21a | 0.33c |
NPK + Zn + Mbili S + G | 204.33h | | 0.10e | 0.23f |
NPK + Mbili S + G | 209.33h | | 0.11d | 0.07i |
NPK + Conv S + G | 280.67f | | 0.22a | 0.31d |
Control + Mono G | 490.00b | | 0.15c | 0.21g |
Control + Mbili S + G | 382.00c | | 0.16b | 0.32e |
Control + Conv S + G | 292.00e | | 0.07g | 0.13h |
LSD | 5.32 | | 0.04 | 0.04 |
CV | 3.87 | | 3.87 | 1.94 |
R2 | 0.99 | | 0.99 | 1.00 |
Kairini Farm | | | | |
NPK + Mono G | 469.33b | | 1.07a | 6.70a |
NPK + Zn + Mono G | 522.33a | | 0.56c | 2.28d |
NPK + Zn + Conv S + G | 174.67g | | 0.28f | 2.67c |
NPK + Zn + Mbili S + G | 154.67h | | 0.25g | 1.84f |
NPK + Mbili S + G | 190.33f | | 0.11i | 0.72h |
NPK + Conv S + G | 183.33f | | 0.23h | 1.62g |
Control + Mono G | 430.33c | | 0.74b | 3.77b |
Control + Mbili S + G | 321.33e | | 0.35e | 2.29d |
Control + Conv S + G | 413.67d | | 0.45d | 2.12e |
LSD | 7.07 | | 0.04 | 0.04 |
CV | 1.28 | | 3.87 | 1.94 |
R2 | 1.00 | | 0.99 | 1.00 |
*Means followed by same letter along the column for each treatment are not significantly different from each other at 5% probability level. Where: NPK = Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium fertilizer; Zn = Zinc; S = Sorghum; G = Green grams; Conv = Conventional intercropping; MBILI = Managing Beneficial Interaction in Legume Intercrops; CM = Cattle Manure; Mono = Monocrop; Control = without fertilizer; LSD = Least Significant Different; CV = Coefficient of variation; R2 = R-Squared
The comparison between the long rainy season in Nairobi Ndogo site and the short rainy season at Kairini farm revealed significant differences in the number of panicles and grain and stover yields, with the latter exhibiting higher yields. This corroborates findings by Kebenei (2021), which emphasized the greater sorghum yields during short rainy seasons. The agricultural activities in Eastern Kenya heavily rely on the predictability and consistency of the short rain seasons from October to December. The observed variability in production and yield components in response to fertilizer treatments underscores the complex interplay between fertilizers, cropping systems, and meteorological conditions.
Notably, the absence of fertilizer resulted in the lowest sorghum grain production due to inadequate soil nutrient supply (Kamdi et al., 2023). Good dry matter accumulation in a plant's early growth phases may be caused by the activation of numerous physiological processes, such as stomatal regulation, chlorophyll production, enzyme activation, and biochemical activities due to the availability of sufficient quantities of trace elements (Cakmak, 2008). Thus, adopting a field-based approach to fertilizer prescriptions through soil testing is imperative for optimizing crop productivity, especially considering the influence of variations in rainy seasons (Desta et al., 2022).
The study focuses on field-based fertilizer recommendations for sorghum production in Eastern Kenya, emphasizing the importance of soil testing and field-based approaches for optimizing crop productivity. The findings support our argument regarding the necessity of assessing overall soil fertility and adopting tailored fertilizer prescriptions for sorghum cultivation. The field study in Kenya investigates the impact of fertilization practices on sorghum grain yield, which is in line with this discussion on the variability in production and yield components in response to fertilizer treatments. The study underscores the importance of adopting field-based fertilizer recommendations for optimizing sorghum productivity. Farmers in rural communities often face resource constraints and cannot afford sufficient mineral fertilizers, necessitating the use of manure as an amendment. The application of manure enhances soil physicochemical properties and nutrient availability, which are crucial for plant growth and yield improvement. However, as observed in this study, cattle manure commonly used by smallholder farmers is rich in plant residues and require decomposers to use a lot of mineral nitrogen as sources of energy for decomposition hence nitrogen becomes unavailable to plants (Kugedera et al., 2024).
The significant yield improvements observed with the application of NPK plus Zinc fertilizer and NPK fertilizer supplemented with MOP 60% K2O highlight the importance of potassium (K) in plant growth and development. Potassium plays a crucial role in osmoregulation, stomatal movement, protein synthesis, and photosynthesis.
The application of NPK supplemented with MOP 60% K2O resulted in notable increases in sorghum grain and stover yield, emphasizing the significance of potassium in enhancing plant development. Furthermore, nitrogen and phosphorus fertilization has been shown to substantially boost productivity in African sorghum-cropping systems (Tonitto and Ricker-Gilbert, 2016). phosphorus helps the root system grow, which increases yield by enabling more balanced uptake of nutrients and water (Kamara et al., 2011). The use of NPK plus Zinc fertilizer and NPK fertilizer supplemented with potassium resulted in significant yield improvements compared to conventional fertilizers. Patel et al. (2023) reported similar findings, showing that potassium supplementation enhances sorghum yield, which supports our recommendation regarding potassium fertilization. The significant effect on NPK fertilizer supplemented with MOP 60% K2O, and NPK plus Zinc fertilizer on stand count, grain yield and stover yield contributed to an increase in the amount of zinc that plants absorb from the soil.
Singh et al. (2021) highlighted the importance of zinc fertilization in zinc-deficient soils, corroborating our discussion on the positive impact of zinc application on sorghum production. Integrating these studies strengthens the evidence supporting the effectiveness of nutrient management strategies in sorghum production. Zinc fertilization is essential in zinc-deficient soils, such as those observed at the Nairobi Ndogo site and Kairini farm, as it promotes root growth, pod development, and seed production, consequently enhancing overall yield (Neha and Dawson, 2023). The positive impact of zinc on seedling growth and dry biomass further underscores its importance in boosting plant productivity (Raza et al., 2022).
Applying 8 kg of Zn ha− 1 significantly increased the number of seeds, seed production, seed yield per hectare, and seed quality (Gashash et al., 2022). Zinc is crucial for plant metabolism because it affects the activities of carbonic anhydrase and hydrogenase, stabilizes ribosomal sections, and produces cytochrome. It is also required for the regulation and maintenance of gene expression that plants need to tolerate environmental stresses (Alloway, 2009). Grain production, pods per plant, and green gram dry matter were all greatly enhanced by soil zinc (Muindi et al., 2020). Zinc treatment was found to be more effective in promoting grain production, nodulation rate, biomass accumulation, and crop growth in zinc-deficient soils. The application of soil zinc resulted in significant improvements in the height, leaf count, dry matter, pod count per plant, and grain output of green grams (Muindi et al., 2020). Applying zinc improves the plant's ability to absorb nutrients and water, enhancing plant development and yield. Proper zinc application also enhances the process of flowering and fruiting.
The MBILI intercropping technique demonstrated a canopy-like formation, increasing competition for nutrients and resulting in higher stover yields at both sites. This finding aligns with previous studies indicating that intercropping can significantly increase crop yield and biomass dry matter, especially under optimal nitrogen fertilization (Temeche et al., 2022). Overall, the utilization of integrated soil fertility management practices, including appropriate fertilizer applications and intercropping techniques, emerges as a promising approach to enhance sorghum and green gram production in Tharaka-Nithi County. Compared to the intercropping system, the monocrop green gram in this study significantly affected the stand count at both sites. The availability of growth resources and variations in part densities are responsible for variations in the yield on the corresponding green grams. Comparing green gram monocrop to conventional intercropping, the latter produced a lower grain yield. Grain yield, stover yield, and green gram stand count were all highly impacted by row arrangement. When compared to both solitary crop options, the net benefit from intercrop combinations was noticeably larger. Intercropping is far more advantageous than cultivating the components independently, despite being labor-intensive and expensive. Green gram yield under a single stand at the Kairini site was noticeably higher.
The intercropping row ratio that produced the highest grain production was 2:1 for sorghum and green gram, followed by 2:1 and 3:1 for other intercropping row ratios. Intercropping systems, particularly sorghum-green gram intercropping, efficiently utilize available nitrogen in the soil through legume fixation, thereby enhancing nitrogen uptake in cereals and improving overall crop output (Sousa et al., 2022; Xiang et al., 2018). The underlying mechanism of intercropping systems facilitates nutrient exchange and root interactions, contributing to enhanced nutrient acquisition and overyielding (Wang et al., 2015).
Because green gram matures exceptionally early, it might not compete with sorghum for resources for a considerable amount of time. Intercropping is beneficial, complementary, and/or compatible with the use of resources. Examples of necessary resources include light, water, and soil nutrients (Temeche et al., 2022). Due to its rapid growth, green gram can utilize resources before the slower-growing sorghum can, saving resources from being wasted. When sorghum reaches a point of maturity, green gram's resource requirement starts to decrease, making the two crops more compatible in terms of resource utilization. Furthermore, because green gram fixes nitrogen on its own, it does not require nitrogen fertilizer; as a result, the cropping system is compatible with sorghum, which requires nitrogen fertilizer.