Self-regulation is a fundamental aspect of human development that significantly impacts various domains of functioning through childhood and adolescence. Our study aimed to investigate the relationship between parental and child self-regulatory abilities, with a specific emphasis on executive function impairments and delay aversion. The overall aim of the present study was to estimate the association between parents' self-perceived levels of self-regulatory skills and their assessments of their children's self-regulatory capacities as well as the longitudinal relations between these abilities.
Our findings demonstrate a significant relationship between the trait factors representing parental and child executive functioning deficits, as well as those representing parental and child delay aversion. Specifically, our models showed substantial shared variance between parental and child assessments of executive function problems and delay aversion. Moreover, results revealed predictive relationships between executive functioning deficits and delay aversion at different measurement time points. Whereas deficits in children's self-regulatory abilities at T1 (executive function and delay aversion) only predicted children's deficits at T2, and parental delay aversion at T1 only predicted parental delay aversion at T2, parental deficits in executive functions at T1 predicted both parental as well as child deficits in executive functions at T2.
These findings indicate that higher levels of executive function problems reported by parents at T1 correspond to an increased perception of similar problems in their children at T2. This observation is significant as it implies that parents who identify numerous difficulties in their own self-regulation initially are likely to anticipate similar challenges in their children later in development, or alternatively, perceive such difficulties in their children more sensitively. Accordingly, parents' self-perception of their own self-regulation skills appears to influence their assessment of their children's abilities. If parents perceive themselves as well-regulated, they are more likely to rate their children similarly. It seems as if parents draw direct conclusions from themselves to their children.
To our knowledge, this is the first study to focus on the extent to which parental perceptions of their own and their children's self-regulation skills influence the outcomes, rather than focusing on the actual relationship between parents' and children's self-regulation skills. Moreover, it is also the first investigation that examines this connection generally and longitudinally. Our results are in line with previous findings (20) that propose that parental beliefs, in addition to parental behavior, play a role in shaping child outcomes. More specifically, according to Murphey's model (20), parental beliefs might influence how parents perceive their children's behaviors and corresponding outcomes, potentially moderating parental responses accordingly. In addition, our results align with existing literature highlighting the role of parental self-regulation in child development (53). We extend the framework of Cuevas and colleagues (53) by revealing intergenerational ties not only within mother-child executive function associations in early childhood, but across parental genders and child age groups. Parents serve as primary models for children's self-regulatory behaviors, and our findings indicate that parental beliefs about their own self-regulatory skills influence the perceptions of their children's substantially. The present study added new information by showing that this relationship, at least for executive function deficits, remains stable over time. Our findings go beyond previous research by highlighting the stability of these constructs throughout development. The relationship between parental and child executive function is robust, implying that even after reassessment several months later, parents’ rating of their children is dependent on their self-ratings, regardless of the severity of initially observed deficits.
As we did not observe such an intergenerational correlation over time for delay aversion, it prompts inquiry into the underlying factors contributing to this discrepancy. One potential explanation for this phenomenon might be that delay aversion was less salient in daily life during the pandemic and therefore less frequently encountered. Furthermore, delay aversion was not recorded as comprehensively within the study as executive function deficits. Since delay aversion is a complex neuropsychological factor that comprises several dimensions (34, 54) it is perhaps more difficult to capture (especially within a survey) than executive functions.
Strengths and Limitations
One of the main strengths of the current study is the large sample size that enhances the generalizability of our findings and provides robust statistical power for detecting relationships between variables. While prior research has predominantly focused on specific age cohorts such as infants (28), children (26), or adolescents (27), our sample encompasses individuals across multiple age groups. This broad inclusion facilitates a more holistic perspective on the topic. Furthermore, assessments were conducted during school closures instead of relying on retrospective reports, providing real-time insights into the impact of distance learning on self-regulation. In contrast to previous research that has predominantly concentrated on maternal abilities, our study extends this focus and includes paternal contributions as well. As noted by Ribner and colleagues (28) and Jester and colleagues (27), paternal skills contribute to the association between parental and child self-regulatory skills, too. In the present study, we examine the interrelations across both parental genders rather than isolating analyses to each gender individually, although it is important to note, that significantly more mothers participated in the study.
Our study is the first to examine intergenerational connections longitudinally. Also, existing studies have mainly focused on the familial effects on executive function (26, 28, 53) rather than delay aversion. Here, we also consider delay aversion, as it is equally relevant in the context of self-regulation (34, 55). Our goal was to measure self-regulation more broadly.
At the same time, several limitations within this investigation should be acknowledged. Firstly, the sole reliance on parental self-report measures concerning child self-regulatory abilities may introduce bias (8), as parents may overestimate or underestimate their children's self-regulatory abilities as well as their impact on those abilities. Future research should incorporate multi-informant assessments as well as neuropsychological testing to provide a more comprehensive understanding of parent-child dynamics. Delay aversion, in particular, is a complex construct that is challenging to accurately quantify (34, 54). Consequently, future research should aim to develop more comprehensive methods for its measurement.
Secondly, a further limitation is the lack of extensive standardized, validated measurements. Since incorporating numerous scales would have considerably increased the survey length and potentially reduced the response rate, especially among families dealing with mental health issues, only an abbreviated version of all three questionnaires (CHEXI, ADEXI, QDQ) was used. To capture the factors more comprehensively, future investigations should consider incorporating the broader questionnaires and objective tests that capture executive function (32), attentional control (56) and delay aversion (57).
Thirdly, the correlational approach limits our ability to establish causal relationships between parental and child self-regulation. Subsequent research should explore the impact of other environmental factors on parent-child interactions and self-regulatory development.
Implications
Despite these limitations, our study has important implications for both research and practice. By highlighting the significant correlations and longitudinal associations between parental and child self-regulatory abilities, our findings underscore the importance of considering family dynamics in interventions aimed at promoting self-regulation in children. In view of the fact that parental attributions and expectations influence their children’s treatment progress (29), interventions targeting parental self-regulation may indirectly benefit children's development (19, 53), while interventions directly targeting children may have spillover effects on parental self-regulation (23). Schneider and colleagues (58), for instance, found that successful treatment of parents’ anxiety disorder is a significant predictor of a better outcome for children’s anxiety sensitivity and agoraphobic cognitions and that even the mere treatment participation (regardless of whether it was successful or not) had a significant positive effect on descendants.
As mentioned earlier, to the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to analyze longitudinal familial relationships based on parents' self-assessments and their evaluations of their children, rather than on direct comparison of parent and child self-regulatory skills. This method enables us to analyze the relationship implied by parents between their own abilities and those of their children, rather than the direct correlation between parent and child skills. The results provide important insights into parental expectations and self-perceptions, contributing to a deeper understanding of the implicit beliefs and assumptions parents have regarding the influence of their abilities on their children's development. This can serve as an initial motivation to investigate whether and how parental self-assessment correlates with the actual abilities and performance of their children. Future studies should combine both approaches by collecting neuropsychological data from parents and children, as well as parents' evaluations of their own and their children’s abilities, and vice versa. In light of the study's findings indicating that parents derive perceptions of their children from their own characteristics, it becomes imperative to consider this phenomenon within therapeutic contexts as well. Our study firmly shows that parents' self-perception is a key factor in how they assess their children's condition. Additionally, our results suggest that early identification and support for children with self-regulatory deficits may help mitigate long-term impacts on academic and socio-emotional outcomes.