The analysed data on socio-economic attributes of households, the number of houses built per year (housing development) in Ibule-Soro, Oda, and Oba-Ile, and the test of hypothesis are presented below:
4.1 Socioeconomic Attributes of Respondents
4.1.1 Gender
The heads of household were targeted in this section. However, where they were not available to provide the needed answers to the questionnaire, a member of the household who was knowledgeable enough to answer the questions raised was interviewed. In Ibule-Soro, 51.7% of the sampled respondents were males and 48.3% were females. In Oda, 48.5% of the respondents were males and 51.5% were females. In Oba-Ile, 54.6% of the respondents were males, and 45.4% were females. Across the peri-urban areas, 52.1% of the sampled respondents were males and 47.9% were females. The findings indicated a predominance of men in housing development in peri-urban areas of the study. This aligns with (34) report, which indicated that men were responsible for 72.8% of housing developments in Southwestern Nigeria. It also revealed that most residential units in the peri-urban areas had men as the heads of household. This may not be unconnected to the fact that men are naturally heads of households and majorly responsible for home ownership in Nigeria. This finding agrees with a survey in Nigeria between 2006 and 2010, where male-headed households constituted 84.8%, while female-headed households were 15.2% (35). To further substantiate the NBS findings, (36) maintained that this pattern of male-headed households has not changed.
4.1.2 Age
(37); and (38) maintained that age plays a key role in social experience and behaviour. As such, age should be given premium consideration in research of this magnitude. According to the data analysed and presented in Table 2, majority (53.4%) of the sampled respondents in Ibule-Soro were between 45 and 54 years old; 17.2% were between 35 and 44 years old; 13.8% between 65 years and older; 10.3% between 25 and 34 years old; and 5.2% between 18 and 24 years old. In Oda, 38.6% of the sampled respondents were between 45 and 54 years old, 18.3% between 35 and 44 years old, 15.3% between 25 and 34 years old, 13.2% between 18 and 24 years old, 10.8% between 55 and 64 years old, and 3.7% were 65 years and older. For Oba-Ile, most (33.3%) of the sampled respondents were between 45 and 54 years old; 18.1% between 35 and 44 years old; 16.3% were between 25 and 34 years old; 14.1% between 18 and 24 years old; 9.6% between 55 and 64 years old; and 8.5% were 65 years and older. Comparatively, most of the sampled respondents across the three locations were between 45 and 54 years old. In addition, Ibule-Soro being a village peri-urban area had more aged respondents compared to the other two locations.
Altogether, majority (36.8%) of the sampled respondents were between 45 and 54 years old, followed in descending order of magnitude by 18.1% that were between 35 and 44 years old, 15.5% between 25 and 34 years old, 13.1% between 18 and 24 years old, 9.4% between 55 and 64 years old, and 7.1% were 65 years and older. The above shows that over 90% of the sampled respondents were within Nigeria's economically active or working-age population of 15-64 years, as stipulated by the National Bureau of Statistics. Again, these respondents who settled in the peri-urban areas were close to the city, to access job opportunities in the city, and rent or own a house in the urban area. Substantiating the above, (39) maintained that the peri-urban environment is characterised by a high level of emigration, primarily by young school leavers seeking greener pastures in cities where their aspirations of better jobs and lives are not generally realised.
4.1.3 Level of Education
Education plays a strategic role in national development. It sharpens or enhances citizens' decision-making processes and increases human capital, labour productivity, and wages (40). It can, to a great extent, determine the level of development in human settlements. Realising the all-important role of education in human society, the level of education in the study areas was investigated and presented in Figure 3. In Ibule-Soro, 3.4% of the respondents had no formal education, 22.4% had primary education, 41.4% had secondary education, and 32.8% had tertiary education. In Oda, 9.8% of the respondents had no formal education, 9.5% had primary education, 31.9% had secondary education, and 48.8% had tertiary education. In Oba-Ile, 3.1% had no formal education, 3.6% had primary education, 32.2% had secondary education, 0.7% had vocational education, and 60.4% had tertiary education. Comparatively, the sampled residents of Oba-Ile were more educated than those of Ibule-Soro and Oda. This is expected because over 60% of their respondents had tertiary education, compared to Oda (48.8%) and Ibule-Soro (32.8%). The above may be attributed to the fact that many of their inhabitants were civil servants, Ondo state government functionaries, enlightened traders, and contractors, as seen in Table 5. Likewise, Oba-Ile had the least (3.1%) inhabitants with no formal education when compared to Ibule-Soro (3.4%) and Oda (9.8%).
Across the peri-urban areas, 5.6% of the respondents had no formal education, 7.1% had primary education, 32.8% had secondary education, 0.4% had vocational education, and 54.1% had tertiary education. The above implies that most respondents were literate, as over 94% have acquired literacy between primary and tertiary education. It goes to show that the peri-urban areas were not only inhabited by people with low academic attainments but also by intellects with high educational attainments who could leverage their level of education, exposure, and expertise for the all-round development of their dwelling unit and neighbouring environment.
4.1.4 Marital Status
Marital status can be categorised as single, married, or other variants such as separation, divorce, and bereavement. Studies have shown that married-couple households have significantly higher wealth than other types of households (41). Marriage is also associated with a higher chance of attaining affluence for a lifetime when compared with nonmarriage (42). Marital status is significant in housing development, demands, and utilisation by different population segments. Considering the above, marital status was investigated. In Ibule-Soro, 1.7% of the respondents were single, 89.7% were married, and 8.6% were widows or widowers. In Oda, 29.8% were single, 68.5% married, and 1.7% were widows or widowers. In Oba-Ile, 18.3% of the sampled respondents were single, 74% were married, 6.3% were widows or widowers, 0.9% were separated, and 0.4% were divorced. Judging from the above data, majority of the respondents (89.7%, 68.5%, and 74.0%) in Ibule-Soro, Oda, and Oba-Ile were married, respectively, leaving relatively few in the other variants of marriage.
Altogether, 21.4% of the sampled respondents were single, 73.1% were married, 4.8% were widows or widowers, 0.5% were separated, and 0.35 were divorced. This revealed that most of the sampled respondents in the peri-urban areas were married. This further confirmed the outcome of the 2006 census on the distribution of household members by marital status in Ondo State. Also, it is consistent with the findings of (43) that majority (62.71%) of the respondents in Choba Peri-urban areas of River State, Nigeria were married.
4.1.5 Household Size
(44) defined a household as a person or group of persons, related or unrelated, who usually live together in the same dwelling unit and have a common cooking and eating arrangement. It is one of the main variables in determining population and is central to the planning of the socioeconomic sector of any country. Policies and programs bordering on housing, health, education, and other aspects of governance are planned with household data (36). With this background information, the household size of the inhabitants of the peri-urban areas was investigated. In Ibule-Soro, 67.2% of the respondents had between 1 and 5 persons per family, 29.3% had 6–10 persons, and 3.4% had 11–15 persons. In Oda, 83.4% had between 1 and 5 persons per family, 15.9% had 6–10 persons, and 0.7% had 11–15 persons. In Oba-Ile, 74% had 1–5 persons per family, 25.5% had 6–10 persons, and 0.4% had 11–15 persons. Cumulatively, 77% of the respondents had 1–5 persons per family, 22.3% had 6–10 persons, and 0.8% had 11–15 persons.
Subjecting the above different household sizes to further mathematical calculations, the average household size in the peri-urban areas was 4.47 people per family. This was higher than the average household size of 3.88 persons per family in Ondo State, as reported by (45). The computation revealed that Ibule-Soro had an average household size of 4.9 persons per family, Oba-Ile with 4.5 persons per family, and Oda with 4.3 persons per family. By interpretation, Ibule-Soro had the highest average household size, followed by Oba-Ile and Oda with the least average household size. Predictably, a household size higher than the average household has various benefits. These include social support, economic benefits, cultural and social bonds, child care, and education. Conversely, negative consequences of households not properly planned and catered for in the human environment include overcrowding, financial limitations, deprivations, demand for and pressure on resources, infrastructure, and increased responsibilities. The absence of necessary services and infrastructure for the teeming population may impair healthy living and/or general well-being.
4.1.6 Employment Status
Since informal delivery of housing has been the norm in Sub-Saharan Africa (peri-urban areas under study, inclusive), there is a need to find out the number of inhabitants of the peri-urban areas that are absorbed in the formal and informal sectors of the economy, as well as those that are not employed. In Ibule-Soro, 1.7% of the respondents were unemployed, 60.3% were self-employed, 27.6% were employed, and 10.3% were retired. In Oda, 6.4% were unemployed, 53.2% were self-employed, 36.6% were employed, and 3.75 were retired. In Oba-Ile, 4% were unemployed, 0.4% were apprentices, 52.8% were self-employed, 30.4% were employed, and 12.3% were retired. Altogether, 4.8% of the respondents were unemployed, 0.3% were apprentices, 53.5% were self-employed, 32.5% were employed, and 9% were retired.
The distribution of employment among the inhabitants of the peri-urban areas shows that a major proportion of the labour force was in the self-employment segment, followed by those in wage and salary employment. These findings conform with the submissions of (46); (47); and (48) that the informal sector is not only large in developing countries (Nigeria inclusive) but is also a major provider of employment.
4.1.7 Nature of Occupation
Experience in developing countries indicates that most of the occupants of peri-urban areas are engaged in informal economic activities (49; 50). Informal employment in Nigeria can be categorized as self-employment in agricultural and nonagricultural activities, unpaid family business, and wage employment. This reflects the heterogeneous nature of the informal sector (51). With the above understanding, the nature of the occupation of inhabitants of the peri-urban areas in the self-employed and employed sectors of the economy earlier identified in Table 4 was investigated. In Ibule-Soro, as presented in Table 5 below, 31.4% of the respondents were farmers, 27.5% were traders, 9.8% were artisans or craftsmen, 2% were drivers, and 29.4% were civil servants. In Oda, 10.2% were farmers, 30.9% were traders, 18.1% were artisans or craftsmen, 1.5% were clergy, 4.2% were in salary or wage employment in private organisations, and 35.1% were civil servants. In Oba-Ile, 2.1% of the respondents were farmers, 38.9% were traders, 20.9% were artisans or craftsmen, 3.2% were clergy, 2.6% were in salary or wage employment in private organisations, 1.1% were contractors (road construction, furniture, fixtures, fittings, importation, and exportation, among others), 0.5% were involved in apprentice, estate, and catering services, respectively, and 29.7% were civil servants.
Comparatively, most of the inhabitants of Ibule-Soro were engaged in farming practices. This is at variance with what was obtained at Oda and Oba-Ile, where many of the respondents, 30.9% and 38.9% were engaged in trading. Across the peri-urban areas, 7.2% of the respondents were farmers, 35% were traders, 19% were artisans or craftsmen, 0.1% were drivers, 2.3% were clergy, 3% were in salary or wage employment in private organisations, 0.6% were contractors (with expertise in road construction, furniture, fixtures, fittings, importation, and exportation, among others), 0.3% were involved in apprentice, estate, and catering services, respectively, 31.8% were civil servants. A significant proportion (31.8%) of the sampled respondents were engaged in the formal sector of the economy as civil servants, while the greatest proportions (68.2%) were in the informal sector, operating as self-employed in agricultural and nonagricultural activities. The above aligns with the World Bank Report that 80.4 percent of Nigeria’s employment is in the informal sector (52). Furthermore, the three (3) major ranked occupations of the peri-urban areas of Akure were trading, civil service, and artisans/craftsmen. Unexpectedly, farming which is an age-long occupation in Nigeria ranked fourth. Again, many of those employed as civil servants and in private establishments used the selected peri-urban areas as their place of abode and provided labour force to the urban area. By implication, they not only act as a catalyst for the physical development of the peri-urban areas but also serve as a source of labour for the urban area and tax generation for the government.
4.1.8 Monthly Income
(53) maintained that the cost of land in peri-urban areas is relatively cheaper than that of the main city, making the areas attract different income groups. By extension, (54) declared that low-income migrants mostly inhabit peri-urban areas. (55); and (56) stated that the pressure generated in the land market owing to the increasing rate of urbanisation has propelled the urban poor to take over most of the undeveloped land in the peri-urban areas for their urban land and housing needs. (57) stated that peri-urban areas are territories where farmers, informal settlers, and the urban middle class, among others, coexist. To confirm the validity of the findings, the average monthly income of the inhabitants of the study locations was investigated. For ease of global understanding, Nigeria's average monthly earnings were converted to dollars using the Central Bank exchange rate of $1 to ₦890 at the Investors’ and Exporters’ FX Window, as seen on the Central Bank of Nigeria website on January 19, 2024.
In Ibule-Soro, 31% of the respondents earned below ₦30,000 ($33.71) monthly, 36.2% earned between ₦30,000 and ₦59,999 ($33.72 and $67.41), 19% between ₦60,000 and ₦89,999 ($67.42 and $101.12), 5.2% between ₦90,000 and ₦119,999 ($101.13 and $134.83), and 8.6% earned ₦120,000 and above ($134.84 and above). In Oda, 28.1% earned below ₦30,000 ($33.71) monthly, 37% between ₦30,000 and ₦59,999 ($33.72 and $67.41), 11.4% between ₦60,000 and ₦89,999 ($67.42 and $101.12), 13.5% between ₦90,000 and ₦119,999 ($101.13 and $134.83), and 10% earned ₦120,000 and above ($134.84 and above) monthly. In Oba-Ile, 12.8% of the respondents earned below ₦30,000 ($33.71) monthly, 33.6% between ₦30,000 and ₦59,999 ($33.72 and $67.41), 14.2% between ₦60,000 and ₦89,999 ($67.42 and $101.12), 15.4% between ₦90,000 and ₦119,999 ($101.13 and $134.83), and 24% earned ₦120,000 and above ($134.84 and above) monthly. Across the peri-urban areas, 19.8% of the respondents earned below ₦30,000 ($33.71) monthly, 35% between ₦30,000 and ₦59,999 ($33.72 and $67.41), 13.5% between ₦60,000 and ₦89,999 ($67.42 and $101.12), 13.9% between ₦90,000-₦119,999 ($101.13 and $134.83), and 17.7% earned ₦120,000 and above ($134.84 and above) monthly.
The above monthly salary composition reveals that most sampled respondents were low-and-medium-income earners. Cumulatively, 19.8% earned below the Nigerian Minimum Wage of ₦30,000 ($33.71) per month. Using the US $1.90 (₦1,691) per person per day poverty line, which was updated in September 2022 to US$2.15 (₦1,913.5) per person per day (58), and can be interpreted to $65.36 (₦58,170) per person per month, one can conclude that 54.8% of the respondents lived below the poverty line in the peri-urban areas. This was more pronounced in Ibule-Soro, where 65.1% lived below the poverty line compared to Oda (65.1%), and Oba-Ile (46.4%). With these figures, Oba-Ile had more monthly inhabitants who earned ₦120,000 and above ($134.84 and above) than Oda and Ibule-Soro. This may be attributed to the fact that Oba-Ile had more civil servants, contractors, and others in high-paid and standard occupations.
4.1.9 Length of Stay in the Area
To a reasonable extent, the length of stay in a built environment determines the level of the inhabitant’s awareness and/or understanding of the state of events in such area. The length of stay will not only provide information about the period of migration into the area but will also enable researchers to gain access to detailed information on the state of issues, in this case, the housing development under investigation. The length of stay of respondents in Ibule-Soro revealed that majority (43.1%) had stayed in the area for a period of ≤ 10 years, 17.2% between 11 and 20 years, 3.4% between 21 and 30 years, 13.8% between 31 and 40 years, and 22.4% for above 40 years. In Oda, the majority (66.4%) of the sampled respondents had stayed in the area for a period of ≤ 10 years, 22% between 11 and 20 years, 3.4% between 21 and 30 years, 5.1% between 31 and 40 years, and 3.1% for above 40 years. In Oba-Ile, majority (66%) of the respondents had stayed in the area for a period of ≤ 10 years, 21.3% between 11 and 20 years, 5.4% between 21 and 30 years, 1.8% between 31 and 40 years, and 5.6% for above 40 years.
Across the peri-urban areas, majority (64.5%) of the sampled respondents had stayed in the area for a period of ≤ 10 years, 21.3% between 11 and 20 years, 4.5% between 21 and 30 years, 3.9% between 31 and 40 years, and 5.9% for above 40 years. Specifically, Ibule-Soro had the highest number (36.2%) of residents that had stayed in the area for 30 years and above, compared to Oda with 8.2% and Oba-Ile with 7.4%. Generally, it could be deduced that most of the physical developments in the peri-urban areas were traceable to the past ten years, as significant proportions of the inhabitants (64.5%) got to their residential locations within the past ten years.
4.1.10 Housing Development
In this study, the age of buildings were used as a proxy variable for housing development. The age of a building refers to the year the building was partially and/or fully constructed and put into productive use (inhabited). It reflects its outlook and quality. From the questionnaires administered to the respondents living in different forms and shapes of residential units in the peri-urban areas, (as reflected in Table 6), the age of the residential buildings was investigated. In Ibule-Soro, majority (48.3%) of the buildings had been in existence between 1 and 10 years ago, 27.6% between 31 and 40 years, 15.5% between 21 and 30 years, and 8.6% between 11 and 20 years. In Oda, most of the buildings had been in existence and inhabited between 1 and 10 years, 29.8% between 11 and 20 years, 7.8% between 21 and 30 years, and 2% between 31 and 40 years. In Oba-Ile, 57.7% of the residential buildings had been in existence between 1 and 10 years, 27.1% between 11 and 20 years, 11.6% between 21 and 30 years, and 3.6% between 31 and 40 years. Altogether, majority (58%) of the sampled residential buildings had been in existence between 1 and 10 years, 26.8% between 11 and 20 years, 10.5% between 21 and 30 years, and 4.8% between 31 and 40 years. Comparatively, majority of the residential buildings became functional in the last ten years. Notwithstanding, Ibule-Soro had more (27.6%) old and waned-out buildings that have existed for 30 to 40 years, compared to other locations.
4.3 Relationship Between Socioeconomic Attributes of Households and Housing Development
The relationship between socioeconomic attributes of households and housing development was tested with the hypothesis stated below:
H0: There is no significant relationship/association between the socio-economic characteristics of households and housing development in the area.
H1: There is significant relationship/association between the socio-economic characteristics of households and housing development in the area.
In considering the above, households’ socio-economic characteristics are held as the independent variable (x), and housing development is held as the dependent variable (y). To determine the above relationship and/or association, data obtained on age, income, household size, length of stay, education, gender, and employment (independent variables) were tested against data on the number of houses built per year (dependent variables) using an appropriate test of measurements. Specifically, age, income, household size, and length of stay were correlated against housing development with the aid of Pearson moment correlation; education with housing development using Spearman rank correlation; the differences between gender and housing development using Chi-square with the Phi coefficient; and differences between employment and housing development using Chi-square with Cramer’s v. The result of the analysis presented in Table 7 shows that there was a statistically significant moderately positive relationship between age and the number of houses built per year (r =.559**, p <.001, N=800) across the peri-urban areas. This implies that as the human population grows in size and age, there is an increased demand for housing. The relationship between age and housing development becomes stronger as people age and start having families. At this stage, more housing units are required, which creates more demand for housing units. It is worth mentioning that over 90% of the sampled populations were economically active or working-age populations that migrated to urban centres in search of employment and better living opportunities. This significantly increased demand for urban housing and the development of new housing projects, some of which were in peri-urban areas, to accommodate the growing active populations. Substantiating the above, (59) affirmed that the growth of Nigeria’s urban population in absolute and relative terms has expanded the existing built-up areas and led to the emergence of new and noticeable ‘urban’ settlements.
Also, income had a strong positive relationship with housing development (r =.667**, p <.001, N = 800). It implies that income is a crucial determinant of housing types, quality, and affordability in peri-urban areas. Ceteris paribus, the higher the income, the more likelihood for improvement in the quality of residential housing units constructed. It was earlier established that over 54.8% of the respondents across the peri-urban areas lived below the poverty line. This, to a certain degree, heightened the informality of settlements that were lacking in property rights, infrastructure, and basic services in the peri-urban areas. Income inequality within and across peri-urban areas worsens disparities in housing development. While a significant proportion of the sampled populations were struggling to access decent housing, a relative few had access to deluxe housing options. The informality of the settlements was more pronounced in Ibule-Soro, where 67.2% of the respondents lived below the poverty line.
Again, household size had a very strong positive relationship with housing development (r =.918**, p.000, N =800). From the results, one can infer that economically active populations, including those with a large proportion of children and young adults (large household size), tend to drive higher housing demand as they form new households and seek independent living arrangements. Corroborating the above submission, (60) affirmed that population growth, and particularly growth in the number of households, leads to a growth in housing demand, while population decline might lead to a decrease in housing demand.
Equally, there is a very strong positive relationship between length of stay and housing development (r =.869**, p <.001, N = 800) across the peri-urban areas. The strong positive relationship was expected to contribute to neighbourhood stability and development. It is believed that residents who have lived in an area for a long period may have a strong sense of belonging and affinity with the community. This stability could create a basis for housing development and investments in local business, infrastructure, and community services. In addition, the length of stay is equally associated with home ownership. It is believed that residents who have lived in a neighbourhood for a long time are more desirous of their own homes.
In addition, it was established that there was a significant, moderately positive relationship between education and the number of houses built per year (r =.519**, p <.001, N = 800) across the peri-urban areas. This suggests that the number of houses built per year can be linked to levels of educational attainment. Growing evidence portrays that improved or higher levels of education bring about increased levels of income, greater employment opportunities, improved property values, robust community engagement, and demand for essential social and physical infrastructure. All things being equal, these, individually and/or collectively, will stimulate housing development. (61) affirmed that education is a leading determinant of economic growth, employment, and earnings to strengthen the above submission. Since many Nigerians derive pride in home ownership in the face of the current high rent, a significant number will want to build their home when their employment status and earnings improve.
Also, a statistically significant differences (X2 (3) = 10.648, P =.014, Φ =.115) exist between gender and housing development. The differences can be understood from the angle that gender alone does not determine the level of housing development. Gender in association with varied variables and principles explained housing development in peri-urban areas. In Nigeria, for example, gender inequalities in access to housing, property rights, affordability, and housing design can significantly impact women’s housing experiences. As observed in the peri-urban areas, gender disparities in homeownership exist, with women having lower ownership rates than men due to widespread socio-economic disparities and discriminatory practices against women. Peri-urban women in Nigeria are undermined and experience four dimensions of vulnerability: physical vulnerability, productive resource vulnerability, participation in the decision-making process vulnerability, and income vulnerability (62). These act as a clog in the wheel of their home ownership. To address the aforementioned vulnerabilities, (63) asserts that to create a 'non-sexist' city in which the urban environment is planned equally for women and men, the gender viewpoint (gender mainstreaming) needs to be prioritized in urban planning.
In the same vein, Table 7 reveals a statistically weak positive difference (X2 (12) = 64.390, P = <.001, V =.164) between employment and housing development. The positive association depicts that education and housing development are interconnected and mutually inclusive. This implies that improved education can stimulate improved housing conditions, and adequate housing can also boost educational opportunities. The weak association suggests that education alone cannot promote housing development without addressing the issues of income inequalities, infrastructure, and governance. To validate the above submission, (64) stated that better education results in higher individual income and is a critical precondition for long-term economic growth. This growth can be seen in the areas of housing development, per capita income, and the human development index, among others.