Prognostic Value of Cellular Senescence, Lymphatic Proliferation, and Histological Findings in the Follow-up of Post-covid-19 Interstitial Lung Disease Sequelae.

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4654047/v1

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Prognostic Value of Cellular Senescence, Lymphatic Proliferation, and Histological Findings in the Follow-up of Post-covid-19 Interstitial Lung Disease Sequelae.

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4654047/v1

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BACKGROUND

In some patients post COVID-19 interstitial lung disease (ILD) sequelae persist beyond 6 months after hospital discharge. Little is known about the pathophysiology of this condition. This study aimed to determine the prognostic value of certain histopathological findings, cellular senescence, and lymphatic proliferation in patients with ILD sequelae.

METHODS

This prospective observational study of patients hospitalized at Vall d’Hebron University Hospital due to COVID-19 pneumonia and presenting respiratory symptoms, radiological alterations, and pulmonary function test impairment during the 3-month follow-up visit after discharge. Lung cryobiopsies were performed, and the histopathological findings and expression of senescence and lymphatic proliferation (P16 and D2-40) were analyzed.

RESULTS

Between March 2020 and February 2021, 4,332 patients were hospitalized at Vall d’Hebron University Hospital due to COVID-19 pneumonia, and 1,403 were visited in the Respiratory Clinic 3 months after discharge. The first 66 patients presenting with respiratory symptoms, radiological alterations, and decreased pulmonary function tests during the post hospitalization follow-up underwent cryobiopsy for diagnostic purposes. Multivariate regression showed that Masson bodies in the 3-month cryobiopsy were related to a higher forced vital capacity at 6 months whereas higher expression of senescence and lymphatic proliferation markers, such as P-16 and D2-40, in the histological samples were related to decreased carbon monoxide transfer test values at 6 months.

CONCLUSION

Senescence and lymphatic proliferation are related to worse pulmonary function outcomes in the mid-term follow-up of patients with post-COVID-19 ILD.

Interstitial lung disease

lung fibrosis

SARS-CoV-2

cellular senescence

COVID-19 sequalae

lymphatic proliferation

cryobiopsy

On March 11, 2020, the World Medical Organization declared a worldwide pandemic due to SARS-CoV-2, a new strain of the coronavirus family. SARS-CoV-2 can cause a wide spectrum of respiratory illnesses ranging from the common cold to severe pneumonia and acute respiratory distress syndrome(1). While the prevalence of post COVID-19 sequelae, such as interstitial lung disease (ILD), after hospital discharge varies according to the published series, most authors coincide that these findings are related to the severity of acute pneumonia(2, 3)

In most patients high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) images in the 6- and 12-month follow-up visits after hospitalization due to COVID-19 pneumonia show progressive improvement of the main findings, such as ground glass opacities (GGO), septal thickening, consolidations, and reticular patterns(4). However, a substantial group of patients remain with respiratory symptoms and present decreased lung function values and radiological alterations in HRCT images long after hospital discharge. In this context, it seems mandatory to identify and explore the pathophysiology behind this torpid evolution in this subgroup of patients.

While the most consistent histological finding in severe COVID-19 patients is diffuse alveolar damage, some patients develop postinfectious organizing pneumonia (OP) that persists for months(5). OP is a non-specific pulmonary reaction to a pulmonary insult that consist of fibroblastic plugs that fill the airspace (Masson bodies) often along with mild lymphoplasmacytic infiltration of the interstitium. Other inflammatory cells, such as mast cells, may play a role in the disease (6). However, beyond these findings, other key underlying factors, such as cellular senescence or lymphatic proliferation, may deserve further attention.

Cellular senescence refers to a state of irreversible growth arrest in which cells lose their ability to divide and function properly(7–10). Cellular senescence is a complex phenomenon that encompasses maladaptive tissue repair, decreased regeneration and chronic inflammation showing similarities with ILD and lung fibrosis (7, 11). P-16, also known as cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A, is a protein that plays a critical role in cellular senescence.

Pulmonary lymphatic vessels are classically found along the peribronchial vascular sheaths, interlobular septa, and pleural connective tissue. Small lymphatic channels are observed within the lobules of normal human lung in the interstitial space around small blood vessels and occasionally emerging from the interalveolar interstitium(12). Some authors have reported proliferation of these vessels in distal parenchyma in animal models of diffuse alveolar damage(13). Others have observed lung lymphatic vessels in proximity to alveolar spaces in patients with idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis(14).

The objective of the present study was to determine the prognostic value of the histologic characteristics, cellular senescence and lymphatic proliferation in tissue samples obtained during the follow-up of patients with ILD sequelae after COVID-19 pneumonia.

A prospective observational study was carried out on all the patients hospitalized due to COVID-19 pneumonia and attending the post-COVID-19 Respiratory Clinic at Vall d’Hebron University Hospital in Barcelona, Spain. Three months after hospital discharge all the patients that had required hospitalization within the context of SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia were offered pulmonary function testing, including spirometry and the carbon monoxide transfer test (DLCO), a 6-minute walking test, HRCT and a follow-up visit in the Respiratory Clinic.

Adult patients ≥ 18 years old that had been hospitalized due to COVID-19 pneumonia and presenting respiratory symptoms, radiological alterations and pulmonary function test impairment at the 3-month follow-up visit after discharge were included. The clinical characteristics of the patients were analyzed during hospitalization followed by evaluation of lung function tests, and radiological and histological findings at 3 months, and clinical, lung function and radiological characteristics at 6 months after hospital discharge. Patient recruitment occurred during the first and second waves of the COVID-19 pandemic in Spain (March 2020 to February 2021), primarily involving the original strain of SARS-CoV-2. The Alpha and Beta variants began to emerge towards the end of this period but were not dominant.

In the follow-up visit at 3 months, the first 66 patients attending the Respiratory Clinic and fulfilling the inclusion criteria underwent a bronchoscopy with transbronchial cryobiopsy. In patients with HRCT abnormalities, transbronchial cryobiopsy was performed if they had dyspnea (grade > 2 on the Modified Medical Research Council Dyspnea Scale) or lung function abnormalities (FVC or DLCO between 40%-70% of predicted value, or > 3% desaturation in the 6-minute walk test). Cryobiopsy was also considered in patients with normal FVC and FEV₁ but significant symptoms or radiological findings, based on a multidisciplinary evaluation. We opted to perform cryobiopsies at 3 months instead of 6 months due to the limited understanding of COVID-19 pulmonary sequelae during the early stages of the pandemic. This early intervention facilitated the detection of significant histopathological alterations, enabling timely therapeutic interventions and informed clinical management. While acknowledging the benefits of prolonged follow-up, our primary objective was to address immediate uncertainties and enhance patient outcomes during this critical period. The study protocol, including the criteria for performing cryobiopsies, was approved by the Ethics Committee of Vall d’Hebron Hospital (Reference: PR(AG)50/2019). All patients provided written informed consent before participating in the study.

Pulmonary function tests

Spirometry and DLCO were performed using a MasterLab device (MasterLab, Jaeger, Germany) following European Respiratory Society (ERS) and American Thoracic Society guidelines(15). The reference values used were those proposed by the Global Lung Initiative.

6-minute walking test

The 6-minute walking test was performed according to ERS guidelines(15). Standardized instructions and encouragement were given during the test.

HRCT

HRCT was performed in all patients with 1 mm slices at 10 mm intervals in maximum inspiration. All the HRCT images were analyzed by a chest radiologist.

The following radiological findings were analyzed in the HRCTs: GGO, septal and subpleural lines, honeycombing and pulmonary consolidations. The extent of the radiological findings was classified into 3 grades based on the number of affected segments: grade 1 (1 to 3 affected segments), 2 (4 to 9) and 3 (more than 9).

Bronchoscopy and cryobiopsy

All procedures were performed as described previously(16). Single-use Ambu aScope 4 Broncho Large (Ambu Corp) and 2.4-mm single-use Erbe cryoprobes were employed, using ERBEKRYO 2 cryosurgical technology (ERBE Medizintechnik). According to the radiological findings, the most affected lung was chosen for the transbronchial cryobiopsy. A negative polymerase chain reaction assay for SARS-CoV-2 RNA (nasopharyngeal swab) was required before all procedures.

Histopathological and immunohistochemistry findings

The cryobiopsies were reviewed by two senior pathologists (IS and SRyC). The presence or absence of Masson bodies, interstitial inflammation and other histopathological findings were recorded along with a descriptive diagnosis for each patient.

The interstitial inflammatory infiltrate was graded as mild, moderate, or severe, and the cells were characterized using immunohistochemical markers: CD20 (L26), CD3 (2GV6), CD138 (B-A38), CD4 (SP35), and CD8 (SP57). Mast cells were stained with tryptase (G3), counted per high power field (HPF), and a mean value was calculated per patient. The presence of senescent cells and lymphatic induction was confirmed using immunohistochemical markers P16 (CINtec histology) and podoplanin (D2-40), respectively. P16 expression was considered relevant in pneumocytes, fibroblasts, or other mesenchymal cells, and graded as absent (no positive cells), mild (1 positive cell/HPF), moderate (2–5 cells/HPF), and severe (> 5 cells/HPF). Only lymphatic vessels unrelated to the bronchial wall, septum, or pleura were considered. Their abundance was described using a semiquantitative scale: absent (0), mild (1/HPF), moderate (2–3/HPF), and severe (> 3/HPF). All immunohistochemistry was performed using a Benchmark Ultra stainer with the UltraView DAB kit, following datasheet staining protocols.

Statistical analysis

All the variables obtained at 3 and 6 months were described according to the type of variable. For continuous variables, the mean, standard deviation (SD), median, minimum (min) and maximum (max) were reported, and for categorical variables the number of cases (N) and the percentage (%) were reported by category. Non-parametric tests were used to assess whether there were statistically significant differences among the variables. The Wilcoxon test was used to compare the continuous variables with the histological variables with two categories. When these were compared with the variables with three categories, the Kruskal-Wallis test was used. For the comparison of the categorical variables with those of histology, the Chi-square test was used. Bivariate analysis of the different clinical outcomes was carried out and logistic models were performed. Multivariate models of the definitions of clinical outcomes were also analyzed. The software R version 4.1.1 was used.

Ethical approval and consent to participate

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Vall d´Hebron Hospital (Reference number: PR (AG) 50/2019). All patients provided written informed consent prior to participating.

Between March 2020 and February 2021, 4,332 patients were hospitalized in a university hospital due to COVID-19 pneumonia. Of this group, 1,403 patients were visited in the Respiratory Clinic 3 months after discharge. The first 66 patients in correlative chronological order presenting respiratory symptoms, radiological alterations and decreased pulmonary function test values in the post hospitalization follow-up underwent a fibrobronchoscopy with a cryobiopsy for diagnostic purposes.

Out of the 66 initial patients who underwent cryobiopsy, all 66 received HRCT follow-up at 3 months, and 48 also had HRCT at 6 months. The reasons for the lack of radiologic follow-up in the remaining 18 patients are as follows: 5 patients had HRCT performed outside the 6-month window (all showed improvement on HRCT); follow-up HRCT were not performed for 2 patients due to the normalization of pulmonary function and resolution of dyspnea; 1 patient died from systemic cryptococcosis; and 10 patients were lost to follow-up and did not have follow-up HRCT.

Basal characteristics of the study population

The basal characteristics of the study population are summarized in Table 1. Thirty-two (48.48%) patients were female with a mean (SD) age of 58.22 (9.78) years. The mean body mass index was 27.89 (3.90) kg/m², and 15 (22.73%), 13 (19.70%) and 38 (57.57%) were current smokers, ex-smokers and never smokers, respectively. Forty-two (63.64%) patients required admission in the intensive care unit with a mean stay of 18.70 (17.90) days. Thirty-five (53.03%) patients required mechanical ventilation. The mean hospital stay per patient was 33.06 (38.11) days. The data regarding the treatment received during and after hospitalization are summarized in Table 2. Eighty-one percent (54) of patients underwent cardiorespiratory rehabilitation based on the treating physician's discretion.

Pulmonary function testing along the follow-up visits

Table 3 summarizes the pulmonary function test results corresponding to the follow-up visits at 3 and 6 months after hospital discharge. The mean forced vital capacity (FVC) at 3 months was 3.03 liters (SD 1.03) and 3.20 liters (0.84) (p=0.003) at 6 months. The mean FVC in the first second was 2.48 liters (0.84) at 3 months and 2.64 liters (0.69) (p=0.010) at 6 months. The DLCO at 3 months was 56.77% (14.50) of the predicted value and 67.11% (16.46) (p= <0.001) at 6 months.

HRCT images along the follow-up visits

The radiological findings of the HRCTs corresponding to the 3- and 6-month follow-up visits after hospital discharge are shown in Table 4. Sixty-six (100%) patients presented GGO at 3 months compared to 44 patients (91.67) (p=0.134) at 6 months. In regard to the grade of extension of the GGO at 3 months, no patient presented grade 0, 9 (14.64%) presented grade 1, 29 (43.94%) grade 2 and 28 (42.42%) presented grade 3, while 4 (8.33%), 13 (27.08%), 29 (60.42%) and 2 (4.17%) patients presented grades 0, 1, 2 and 3 GGO at 6 months, respectively (p < 0.001). Sixty-four (96.97%) patients presented septal/subpleural lines at 3 months after hospital discharge compared to 42 (87.50%) (p=0.131) patients at 6 months. With respect to the extension of septal/subpleural lines 2 (3.03%), 27 (40.91%), 29 (43.94%) and 8 (12.12%) patients presented grades 0, 1, 2 and 3 at 3 months, respectively compared to 6 (12.5%), 25 (52.08%), 15 (31.25%) and 2 (4.17%) at 6 months (p=0.010).

Histological features of the lung cryobiopsies

The histological characteristics evaluated are summarized in Table 5. Twenty-two (33.33%) patients presented Masson bodies. Regarding interstitial inflammation, 15 (22.73%) patients showed none, while 33 (50%) patients presented mild inflammation, 15 (22.73%) moderate inflammation and 3 (4.55%) patients presented severe inflammation. Immunohistochemical characterization of the inflammatory infiltrate revealed that it was mostly composed of CD3 cells and that CD4/CD8 was >1. The mean number of mastocytes per HPF was 60.05. Thirteen patients (19.70%) presented bronchiolar metaplasia, 12 (18.18%) pigmented macrophages, and 5 (7.58%) presented interstitial giant cells.

Regarding senescence, defined as the abundance of cells expressing P16, in 4 (6.06%) patients it was absent, in 39 (59.09%) mild, in 18 (27.27%) it was moderate and in 5 (27.27%) patients senescence was severe. Lymphatic vessels proliferation, labeled with D2-40, was mild, moderate, and severe in the samples of 25 (37.88%), 23 (34.85%) and 18 (27.27%) patients, respectively (Fig 1).

Factors predicting mid-term outcomes after hospital discharge

Multivariate analyses showed that patients with Masson bodies in the cryobiopsy at 3 months were less likely to have an FVC (%) < 80 at the 6-month visit (p=0.04).

P16 and D2-40 in the histological samples at 3 months after hospitalization were related to DLCO values < 70% at 6 months (p=0.02, 0.04). The multivariate regression model confirmed that lymphatic proliferation and senescence values in the histological samples at 3 months after hospitalization were independently related to DLCO values < 70% at 6 months (p=0.04) (Table 6).

The present study showed that OP, senescence and lymphatic proliferation in pulmonary cryobiopsies in patients with respiratory sequelae after hospitalization due to COVID-19 pneumonia, can predict the evolution of lung function during the following months. The only pathological finding associated with good prognosis was OP defined as the presence of intralveolar Masson bodies. Increased expression of P16 and D2-40 in the cryobiopsy performed at 3 months after hospital discharge was independently related to lower DLCO values at 6 months. Senescence reflects the indelible mark of aging and is defined as a cellular program that induces stable growth arrest along with diverse phenotypic alterations, such as genomic instability, telomere attrition, chromatin remodeling, metabolic reprogramming, increased autophagy, decreased mitophagy and the up-regulation of a complex proinflammatory secretome(17). This growth arrest can be triggered by a wide spectrum of insults including telomere attrition, DNA damage, chromatin alterations and oncogene activation(11). While cellular senescence plays a key role in distinct physiologic protector processes, such a tumor progression, the secretome may also be involved in the appearance of lung fibrosis(7,9,10). This pathway has been described in depth in lung fibroblasts, alveolar type 2 cells and immune cells, which play a key role in lung fibrosis. In this context, in the present study, the measurement of P-16 values in lung tissue in patients presenting interstitial lung abnormalities at 3 months after COVID-19 pneumonia showed that increased levels of this cell cycle inhibitor were independently related to lower DLCO values at 6 months, confirming its utility as a predictor of poor outcomes in post-COVID-19 ILD sequelae. DLCO reflects the gas exchange between the lungs and the pulmonary vascular bed and is the parameter that probably best defines correct physiological functioning of the lungs. This is the first time that the prognostic value of a cycle cell inhibitor such as P16 has been assessed as a mid-term predictor of poor outcomes in ILD, confirming the biological plausibility proposed previously (18,19).

In parallel, the presence and distribution of lymphatic vessels in normal lungs has been the subject of much controversy(20). Reports involving animal and human studies have described lymphatic vessels in the peribronchovascular interstitium but not in the parenchyma between alveoli (13,21,22). In contrast to the distribution of lymphatic vessels in normal lungs, de novo lymph angiogenesis has been described in diffuse alveolar damage(23–27). In this line, Chemaly et al.(28) described lymphatic vessels in the proximity of alveolar spaces with a greater perimeter and area with worsening stages of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis(29). Lymphatic vessels have been related to the fibrotic process and the maintenance of lung injury(20,23). In our study moderate and intense expression of D2-40 antibodies were independently related to lower DLCO values at 6 months, also confirming, the utility of DLCO as a predictor of poor outcomes in ILD. Again, this is the first time that the potential predictive role of D2-40 is described in post-COVID-related ILD.

OP secondary to SARS-CoV-2 is the most frequently described finding in HRCT and lung tissue samples in post-COVID-19 ILD sequelae(30,31). Different post-COVID-19 patient cohorts have demonstrated an overall good response of post-COVID-19 OP to systemic corticosteroids, although the dosage and duration of treatment are still controversial(32). Our study revealed that the presence of Masson bodies in lung cryobiopsy (which is the histological hallmark of OP) at 3 months was related to higher FVC values at the 6-month follow-up. This finding coincides with previous reports, describing a good response of OP to systemic steroids and progressive spontaneous improvement of post-COVID-19 ILD sequelae. Thus, our results confirm that Masson bodies are a marker of good prognosis in post-COVID-19 ILD sequelae. Therefore, cryobiopsy results significantly impacted therapeutic management, informing decisions like corticosteroid use based on detailed histopathological findings, thus improving medium-term outcomes for post-COVID-19 patients.

The severity of inflammation in the lung tissue sample was not related to the lung function outcomes at follow-up. In parallel, immunohistochemical characterization of the inflammatory infiltrate revealed a predominant CD3 reactive pattern. Contrary to what has been found in COVID-19 autopsies, our patients showed a normal number of mastocytes per HPF(6). This could be due to the fact that the cryobiopsies were performed three months after the acute pneumonia.

Approximately 15% of the patients in our study had some form of respiratory comorbidity, with asthma being the most prevalent, accounting for more than half of these cases. Current scientific evidence indicates that asthma does not significantly increase the risk of developing more severe SARS-CoV-2 infection(33). Consequently, the presence of asthma and other respiratory comorbidities in our cohort is unlikely to impact the overall results. This context is crucial for interpreting our findings and indicates that the observed effects are not influenced by an increased severity of COVID-19 due to respiratory comorbidities

This study presents some limitations. First, the patient sample is limited, and therefore, a possible lack of power could prevent the observation of other prognostic properties related to the presence of the P16 or D2-40 antigen. Second, the lack of histologic follow-up samples at 6 months does not allow full understanding of the long-term meaning of these markers or the underlying physio pathological process that they represent. Third, our study lacks a control group, which could have contributed to the validation of the potential utility of the findings. However, obtaining healthy lung tissue in order to test experimental biomarkers seems ethically unapproachable.

In summary, this is the first study aimed at analyzing the prognostic utility of senescence and lymphatic vessels and other histological characteristics such as OP within the context of post-COVID-19 ILD sequelae. While the P16 and D2-40 expression in lung tissue was related to decreased DLCO values at mid-term follow-up, OP was related to higher FVC values. These findings suggest the potential utility of P16 and D2-40 as markers of bad prognosis in a wide spectrum of patients presenting lung fibrosis. Further studies are necessary to confirm and deepen the understanding of the role of senescence and lymphatic proliferation in ILD.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Vall d´Hebron Hospital (Reference number: PR (AG) 50/2019). All patients provided written informed consent prior to participating

Consent for publication

Not applicable

Availability of data and materials

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Competing interests

IO declares to have received honoraria in the last three years for participating as a speaker in meetings sponsored by Astrazeneca, Boehringuer-Ingelheim, Chiesi, and Novartis and as a consultant for Astrazeneca, GlaxoSmithKlein, Puretech and Sanofi. He has received financial aid from Astrazeneca, Bial and Chiesi for congress attendance and has received grants from Sanofi for research projects.

IS declares to have received honoraria in the last three years for participating as a speaker in meetings sponsored by Astrazeneca, Boehringuer-Ingelheim, Roche, Pfizer and Takeda and has received financial aid from Takeda for congress attendance.

XM declares to have received honoraria in the last three years for participating as a speaker in meetings sponsored by Astrazeneca. GlaxoSmithKlein, Novartis and Sanofi as a consultant for Astrazeneca, GlaxoSmithKlein and Sanofi. He has received financial aid from Astrazeneca, Novartis, Menarini, GlaxoSmithKlein and FAES for congress attendance.

MFP, DV, MSC, CRM, DE, MC, MJC, SRyC declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

This project was supported by the Fundació Catalana de Pneumologia (FUCAP), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (PI21/01046) and Fondo Europeo de Desarrollo Regional (FEDER). The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

MFP is a researcher supported by the Contratos Predoctorales de Formación en Investigación en Salud (PFis) programme from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (FI22/00262).

Authors' contributions

IO, IS, SRyC, MFP, XM, MJC, CRM, DV, MC and DE contributed substantially to the study design, data analysis and interpretation, and the writing of the manuscript. The authors had approved the submitted version and had agreed to be personally accountable for their own contributions, ensuring that any questions related to the accuracy or integrity of the work were appropriately investigated and resolved. MSC, IS and SRyC analyzed and interpreted the histological samples. DV reviewed and compared the radiological tests. MC performed the cryobiopsy.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

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Tables 1 to 6 are available in the Supplementary Files section

No competing interests reported.

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Prognostic Value of Cellular Senescence, Lymphatic Proliferation, and Histological Findings in the Follow-up of Post-covid-19 Interstitial Lung Disease Sequelae.

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Abstract

Figures

BACKGROUND

METHODS

Pulmonary function tests

HRCT

Bronchoscopy and cryobiopsy

Histopathological and immunohistochemistry findings

Statistical analysis

RESULTS

DISCUSSION

Declarations

References

Tables

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1