Diversity of aphrodisiac plants in Central and Southern Benin
Results from this study show that 138 aphrodisiac plant species are used in center and south Benin. In similar work, Kambalé (2012) identified 37 species in Democratic Republic of Congo, while Talaa (2009) and Singh et al. (2010) identified 118 and 136 aphrodisiac plant species respectively in Morocco and India.
The high diversity of plants reported to have aphrodisiac properties could result from daily uses of plants added with hearsay occurrences. The presence of such a large number of aphrodisiac plant species indicates that the study area harbored a very high diversity of medicinal plants and that it is a site for various indigenous knowledge. However, the high number of species recorded (72) at the center Benin can result from the largest number of respondents in this area (90 vs. 44 respondents in the south Benin).
Our results revealed that taxa Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae and Poaceae displayed the highest proportion of aphrodisiac plants (27.54% of the total plants collected). According to several reports, Fabaceae (Adomou et al. 2012; Ahoyo et al. 2017; Laleye et al. 2015), Euphorbiaceae (Adomou et al. 2012 ; Ambé et al. 2015) and Poaceae (Akouedegni et al. 2012) contain the greatest number of medicinal plants commonly used to treat several diseases in Benin and neighboring countries. It is also possible that these dominant families include species that possess many biologically active compounds which can be effective in the management of diseases. However, if we assumed that medicinal properties are not randomly distributed in plant phylogenies (Saslis-Lagoudakis et al. 2011), these data need to be confirmed through bioscreening potential and bioinformatics approaches for example.
Of the 138 aphrodisiac plants identified, 61 have been previously cited for aphrodisiacal properties. These include Caesalpinia bonduc (Assogbadjo et al. 2011; Gbankoto et al. 2015), Garcinia kola (Adomou et al. 2012; Ojo et al. 2019), Cyperus esculentus (Adomou et al. 2012; Talaa 2009), Borassus aethiopum (Gbesso et al. 2016), Aframomum melegueta (Kamtchouing et al. 2002), Acridocarpus smeathmannii (Adomou et al. 2012), Musa sapientum (Lal et al. 2017), Cola acuminata (Kambalé 2012; Okwunodulu et al. 2017), Xylopia aethiopica (Talaa 2009; Woode et al. 2011), Cissus populnea (Adomou et al. 2012; MacDonald et al. 2016), Carissa spinarum (Adomou et al. 2012), Carpolobia lutea (Adomou et al. 2012), Carica papaya (Kambalé 2012), Securidaca longepedunculata (Chika et al. 2017), Citrus aurantifolia (Adejoh et al. 2017), Cola nitida (Odebunmi et al. 2009), Mondia whitei (Adomou et al. 2012; Deguenonvo 2011), Paullinia pinnata (Adomou et al. 2012), Eugenia aromatica (Adomou et al. 2012; Tajuddin et al. 2003), Zingiber officinale (Abudayyak et al. 2015; Talaa 2009 ; Adomou et al. 2012), Rourea coccinea (Adomou et al. 2012), Capsicum frutescens, Citrus lemon, Cymbopogon citratus, Desmodium velutinum, Elaeis guineensis, Euphorbia hirta, Piper guineense (Kambalé 2012; Echo et al. 2017), Citrus aurantium, Cocos nucifera (Abudayyak et al. 2015) Paullinia pinnata, Waltheria indica (Békro et al. 2007), Daucus carota, Allium cepa, Allium sativum, Arachis hypogea, Phoenix dactylifera et Tribulus terrestris (Talaa 2009), Ananas comosus, Evolvulus alsiniodes, Hymenocardia acida, Prosopis africana, Kigelia africana, Moringa oleifera, Parkia biglobosa, Phoenix dactylifera, Prosopis africana, Pseudocedrela kotschyi, Scoparia dulcis, Senna occidentalis (MacDonald et al. 2016), Manihot esculenta (Tan et Zahazah 2015), Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench, Abrus precatorius L., Aloe vera (L.) Burm. F, Cissus quadrangularis L., Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC., Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L., Flueggea virosa (Roxb.ex Willd), Jatropha curcas L., Ocimum gratissimum L., Tamarindus indica L (Singh et al. 2012). These results attest that respondents hold a good knowledge on plant species with aphrodisiac properties that can help phytochemists and pharmacologists to test bioactive compounds and to confirm traditional uses.
The species mostly cited were Caesalpinia bonduc (49 citations), Musa sapientum (37 citations), Garcina kola (33 citations), Cyperus esculentus (24 citations), Borassus aethiopum (21 citations), Aframomum melegueta (19 citations), Acridocarpus smeathmannii (18 citations), Cola acuminata (18 citations), Citrus aurantifolia (17 citations), Imperata cylindrica (17 citations), Manihot esculenta (17 citations), Monodora myristica (14 citations), Pachycarpus lineolatus (14 citations), Gardenia erubescens (13 citations), Xylopia aethiopica (13 citations). This indicates their high potential for the management of sexual dysfunction symptoms. These plants could be considered as promising candidates for further scientific validation, especially those not yet screened for any pharmacological property. However, the study must be extended to the whole country to get the list all plants traditionally used as aphrodisiac for phytochemical research.
The study revealed that the ethnic group Idaatcha had a great knowledge of aphrodisiac plants in the study area probably due to the unequal number of respondents in different ethnic groups.
Market surveys exhibited eight (8) aphrodisiac plant species of high quotation frequencies mostly marketed from which five species fall in the Red List of IUCN due to root and/or fruit overexploitation: Caesalpinia bonduc, Acridocarpus smeathmanni, Monodora myristica, Xylopia aethiopica, and Garcina kola. In-depth studies must be conducted especially implications of commercial extraction in reproductive ecology of these plant species for conservation purposes. According to van Andel et al. (2015), in order to guarantee a continuous supply of herbal medicine in the future, appropriate management plans must be designed, for which specified information on species occurrence and extraction localities is needed.
In addition, the present study showed that aphrodisiac plant buyers were mainly old men. This is not surprising because men's sexual capacities reach their peak in the range of 25 to 35 years of age (Ondele et al. 2015). Sexual intercourse for the elderly aims to maintain health and harmony within the married couple. But it would be wise not to have sexual intercourse too prolonged at the old age (60 to 70 years). .
Ecological parameters of aphrodisiac plants
Aphrodisiac plant species recorded here were mainly phanerophytes. This suggested that woody plants contain more aphrodisiac active ingredients. Similar results have been reported on aphrodisiac plants by Kambalé (2012) and Ipona et al. (2018) and by Adomou et al. (2012) for on medicinal plants sold in the market of Abomey-Calavi (Benin). With regard to phytogeographic distribution, the Sudano-Guinean and Pantropical species were the dominated recorded species. These results matched Kambalé (2012) and Ipona et al. (2018) findings. According to Adomou et al. (2012), species with wide distribution are able of colonizing degraded environments (fields, fallows, roadsides). Moreover, of all aphrodisiac plants identified, seventeen (17) species were threatened in Benin and appeared on the IUCN Red List with different status (Table 4). Of these species, two (02) were declared extinct in the wild (EW), four (04) were endangered (EN) and eleven (11) were vulnerable. Based on the ongoing degradation and conversion of natural habitats in Benin, awareness-raising actions on the risks of residual populations of aphrodisiac plant, reforestation and promotion of medicinal plant gardens should be encouraged.
Table 4
List of threatened aphrodisiac plants in Benin
Aphrodisiac plants | Status (Adomou et al. 2011) |
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. | Extinct in the wild (EW) |
Garcina kola Heckel | Extinct in the wild (EW) |
Acridocarpus smeathmannii (DC.) Guill. & Perr. | In danger |
Afraegle paniculata (Schumach & Thonn.) Engl. | In danger |
Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal | In danger |
Pterocarpus erinaceus Poir. | In danger |
Borassus aethiopum Mart. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Carissa spinarum L. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Detarium senegalense JF Gmel. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Khaya senegalensis (Desr.) A. Juss. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Mondia whitei (Hook, f.) Skeels | Vulnerable (VU) |
Tetrapleura tetraptera (Schumach & Thonn.) Taub. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Vitellaria paradoxa CF Gaertn. ssp. paradoxa | Vulnerable (VU) |
Voacanga africana Stapf. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Xylopia aethiopica (Dunal) A. Rich. | Vulnerable (VU) |
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepernick & Timler | Vulnerable (VU) |
Plant parts and manner of use
People use various parts of medicinal herbs to prepare aphrodisiac remedies. When analyzing the use of plant parts, we found a frequent utilization of root (33.12%) followed by leaf (20.13%). Several ethnobotanical studies were quoted root and leaf among the most preferred part of plant for the preparation of remedies (Adomou et al. 2012; Ipona et al. 2018; Kambalé, 2012; Lagnika et al. 2016; Laleye et al. 2015). Therefore, root appears as the organ that contains more aphrodisiac active ingredients. This has been confirmed clinically on species such as Caesalpinia bonduc (Gbankoto et al. 2015; Shelar et al. 2014), Acridocarpus smeathmannii (Kale et al. 2019), Mondia whitei (Watcho et al. 2012; Oloro et al. 2016). However, root harvesting is very dangerous and even fatal for the survival of a plant. There is a need for phytochemical data on underutilized parts of species such as Pachycarpus lineolatus, Acridocarpus smeathmannii, Curculigo pilosa and Caesalpinia bonduc which were cited by herbs sellers as rare species to find while its demand is growing. Contrary to the devastating effect that the use of roots can cause to plant biodiversity, the high frequency of use of leaf in recipes is a great advantage for the preservation of plant biodiversity because they are less dangerous apart from flowering delay due to allocations.
Moreover, maceration (44.76%) was the most frequent mode of aphrodisiac remedies preparation. These result contrasted those on leaf decoction obtained by Kambalé (2012). For the present study, alcoholic maceration was the most suitable for extracting aphrodisiac active ingredients from the roots. According to Lévy and Garnier (2006), the consumption of alcohol in moderate quantities would constitute a substance lifting inhibitions, which would amplify sensations and contribute to increase sexual arousal. Chikere et al. (2011) reported also that alcohol drinking enhances pleasure during period of sex. But studies are needed in order to find more suitable solvent for the human body other than alcohol that can be one cause of sexual weakness. Indeed, with the unrestrained quest for income following the world economic crisis, the traditional alcohol resulting from the distillation of palm wine and the other solvents are often adulterated alcohols of all kinds that are unsuitable for human health. Other solvents should be sought, except water.
Moreover, we notice that some traditional healers associated ingredients such as ivory and elephant penis, buffalo horn, horse penis and squirrel penis when prepared their aphrodisiac remedy. This is very dangerous and can lead in disappearance of these wild animals. Sensitization actions are needed in order to discourage this practice reducing animal biodiversity.
Sexual weakness appeared as the common sexual dysfunction treat and for which nine (9) aphrodisiac plants were mostly used: Acridocarpus smeathmannii, Citrus aurantifolia, Cyperus esculentus, Garcina kola, Imperata cylindrica, Pachycarpus lineolatus, Borassus aethiopum, Cola acuminata and Caesalpinia bonduc (FL ≥ 91% for each species). Some previous studies revealed that Acridocarpus smeathmannii (Kale et al. 2018), Borassus aethiopum (Gbesso et al. 2016), Garcinia kola (Ojo et al. 2019), Caesalpinia bonduc (Gbankoto et al. 2015), Cyperus esculentus (koud et al, 2016), Imperata cylindrica (Gaikwad et al. 2019) and Cola acuminata (Eromosele et al. 2018), contained pharmacological agents for the treatment of erectile dysfunction. But According to Idris et al. (2018), Citrus aurantifolia juice should be consumed with caution due to its potential to cause infertility in males.
Causes of sexual dysfunction treated
In this study, it was found that the main causes of sexual dysfunction were excess alcohol drinking and some chronic diseases (17.46% of each) followed by sex abuse (11.11%), excess of table, psychological disorders, mystical causes (9.52% of each), aging (7.94%), heredity and lack of exercise (4.76% of each). Similar results were found by Jain (2019) and Seisen et al. (2012). Chronic diseases cited here suggested that their prevention can help prevent sexual dysfunctions. Here again, regarding of excess alcohol drinking, there is an urgent need for sensitization people in order to limit human healthy damage.