High-Performance Energy Harvesting and Continuous Output Using nylon-11/BaTiO₃-PVDF Triboelectric Nanogenerators with Strong Dielectric Properties

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4722431/v1

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High-Performance Energy Harvesting and Continuous Output Using nylon-11/BaTiO₃-PVDF Triboelectric Nanogenerators with Strong Dielectric Properties

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4722431/v1

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Among various emerging energy technologies, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have garnered significant attention due to their ability to convert environmental mechanical energy into electrical energy through triboelectric effect and electrostatic induction. The energy converted by TENGs can power microelectronic devices. This paper proposes a high-performance TENG enhanced with BaTiO₃nanowires(BTONWs). Using electrospinning technology, BTONWs were mixed with PVDF to fabricate a TENG with high flexibility and efficient energy conversion in a porous structure. BaTiO₃ and PVDF all exhibited piezoelectric and triboelectric properties, maximizing the conversion of pressure into electrical energy output. This integration effectively enhanced conversion power and provides continuous energy supply. Experimental results show that the fabricated TENG achieved a current and voltage of 11 µA and 175 V, respectively, with a maximum power density of 0.648 mW at a load resistance of 90 MΩ. Additionally, the performance of the TENG was tested using a calculator, a timer, and LED lights. By connecting to a simple external circuit and continuously tapping the TENG, the devices functioned normally, demonstrating that the TENG can continuously and stably output electrical energy by continuously collecting mechanical energy to power micro-generators. This makes a significant contribution to the development of energy harvesting, wearable devices, and micro-power sources.

Physical sciences/Engineering/Chemical engineering

Physical sciences/Engineering/Electrical and electronic engineering

Physical sciences/Engineering/Biomedical engineering

Triboelectric nanogenerator

BTONWs-PVDF

output boosting

micro-power sources

The rapid development of human society has highlighted the critical importance of clean and renewable energy. Over dependence on traditional fossil fuels has led to serious environmental pollution and energy crisis. The burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere, contributing to global warming and climate change. Against the backdrop of worsening global climate change, the pursuit of sustainable and clean energy has become increasingly urgent. Renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro and bioenergy, offer hope for a sustainable future while reducing environmental impacts [1]. However, due to the intermittent and variable nature of these renewable energy sources, there is a need to develop new technologies to utilize them efficiently.

Among various emerging energy technologies, TENGs have attracted attention for the ability to convert ambient mechanical energy into electrical energy through triboelectric effect and electrostatic induction. TENGs were capable of harvesting mechanical energy from a variety of sources, including human movement, vibration, wind, and water waves. The triboelectric effect was the phenomenon whereby certain materials become electrically charged upon frictional contact with another material. This effect, combined with electrostatic induction, enables TENGs to generate electrical energy from mechanical motion [2]. This maked TENG a versatile and promising technology for energy harvesting applications.

TENGs were first proposed by Wang and his team in 2012, aiming to convert irregular mechanical motion into electrical energy [3]. The lightweight and flexible nature of TENGs provides a solid foundation for the development of self-powered devices, which could reduce human dependence on fossil fuels and promote the development of renewable energy. The original concept of the TENG has continuously developed and significant advances have been made in terms of design, materials and performance. TENG has evolved into a variety of modes, including vertical contact separation mode, lateral sliding mode, single electrode mode, and independent triboelectric layer mode, each with unique advantages and applications.

In recent years, with the development of TENG technology, researchers have worked to improve the performance of TENGs by improving composite materials, surface structures and fabrication methods [4]. The selection of materials was critical to the performance of TENGs, as the triboelectric effect depended on the properties of the materials used. Studies have explored various polymers, metals and nanomaterials to optimise triboelectric properties. For example, the addition of Zinc oxide (ZnO) to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) improves the electrical properties of the material, thereby increasing the electrical output [5].ZnO nanoparticles promoted the formation of β-phase in PVDF with better piezoelectric properties, thus improving the energy output of TENG. Meanwhile, as a material to change the electrical properties, BaTiO₃ improved the dielectric constant and piezoelectric properties of the composites more significantly compared to ZnO. BaTiO₃also promoted the formation of better dielectric properties in PVDF, in addition to its own good piezoelectric properties, and as a composite, BaTiO₃has better performance[3].

Another way to improve the performance of TENG was to perform surface modification and structural design. The transparency of fibrous materials could be significantly improved by electrospinning polyurethane (PU), which is then incorporate with PDMS and PMMA [6]. Electrospinning allowed the creation of nanofibers with a high surface area, thus enhancing the triboelectric effect by increasing the contact area between the materials. Another study used PDMS as a substrate triboelectric material and tested the electro-performance of different surface structures (sheets, holes, and pillars), and the results showed that the hole structure had the highest electrical output [7]. Reducing the pore size with polyurethane on the same size triboelectric material increased the number of holes, thus increasing the effective contact area and improving the electrical output [8]. These studies have shown that optimising the surface structure of TENG can significantly improve its performance. Common nanofabrication techniques included moulding and electrospinning method. However, moulding method usually produces TENGs with diameters in the millimetre range, which are relatively large compared to nanoscale structures [9]. On the other hand, electrospinning was one of the most widely used techniques for fabricating low-dimensional nanomaterials because of its simplicity, the process could be precisely controlled, the wide range of material choices, the low cost, and the possibility of large-scale production [10–11]. Electrospinning could produce continuous nanofibers with diameters ranging from tens of nanometres to a few micrometres, making it suitable for the fabrication of high-performance TENGs. However, PDMS had strong adhesive properties and couldnot be easily electrospunning [12]. Most of the TENGs made from PDMS were made by moulding resulting in larger diameter fibre filaments [13] or wrapped with other substances before electrospinning [14]. on the other hand, PVDF could be directly electrostatically spun, which is simpler in fabrication and has a smaller imaging diameter.

This study aimed to address the existing technical and application challenges through the development of novel, efficient and eco-friendly TENG systems. By exploring innovative materials and design approaches, the aim was to improve the energy conversion efficiency and environmental resilience of TENG, and to evaluate its performance stability in practical applications. The final goal was to pave the way for the commercialization and sustainable development of TENG technology in energy harvesting.

Specifically, this paper presented the fabrication of high-performance, highly flexible TENGs using nylon-11 and PVDF with piezoelectric BaTiO₃ nanoparticles. BaTiO₃ was mixed with PVDF and then, electrospun into a porous triboelectric layer. PVDF and BaTiO₃ were chosen because of their excellent piezoelectric and triboelectric properties, which can synergistically enhance the energy output of the TENG. BaTiO₃ with different mass ratios was investigated and analysed to determine the optimal composition to achieve maximum electrical output. The electrospinning process was optimised to produce a homogeneous and highly porous structure, which is essential for increasing the contact area and improving the efficiency of TENG.

In the experiment, we fabricated and tested an electrospun TENG of BTONWs-PVDF. The results showed that at a load resistance of 90MΩ, the TENG achieved a current of 11µA and a voltage of 175V, with a maximum power density of 0.648mW. This indicates that the TENG has high energy conversion efficiency and can generated a significant amount of electrical energy from mechanical motion. Additionally, to verify the practical application potential of the TENG, we designed a series of experiments using a calculator, a timer, and LED lights as testing objects. By connecting the TENG to an external circuit and continuously patting the TENG, the calculator and timer operated normally, and the LED lights were illuminated. This demonstrates that the electrical energy generated by the TENG made of BTONWs-PVDF can be fully applied to power microelectronic devices.

This study aims to significantly advance the development of TENG technology, contributing to the realization of sustainable energy solutions and the reduction of environmental impact. By addressing technical challenges and exploring new applications, this research lays the groundwork for the broader application of TENG technology.

MATERIALS

Nylon-11, Poly (vinylidene difluoride) (PVDF, FR 904) (M_w = 600000) were purchased from aladdin Shanghai 3F New Material Co., Ltd. Dimethylformamide (DMF), acetone (AR), Titanium Dioxide, Barium hydroxide octahydrate were obtained from Chengdu Kelong Chemical Reagent Factory. The 1,1,1,3,3,3-Hexafluoro-2-propanol (HFIP) was supplied from Aladdin. Nylon-11 pellets provided by Aldrich. All agents were directly used.

Preparation of BTONWs

Hydrothermal reaction was used to prepare the BTONWs [16]. Firstly, the Na₂Ti₃O₇ NWs was prepared as the intermediate product. 2 g of titanium dioxide was added into 40 ml of 10 M NaOH aqueous solution with stirring for 1 h. Then, poured the solution into a 250 ml Teflon-autoclave and heating at 200℃ for 72 h. The intermediates were collected and washed with deionized water and alcohol for several times and dried into powder in vacuum oven at 60℃. Secondly, 0.5 g of intermediates were added into 10 mL deionized water with stirring for 1 h. Subsequently, the mixture was poured into 40 ml of 0.12 M barium hydroxide solvent, and then strongly agitated for 1 h. Keeping at 100℃ for 24 h after poured the solution into the Teflon auto-clave. After drying process in a vacuum oven at 60℃, the BTONWs were obtained.

Electrospinning and fabrication of triboelectric nanogenerator

As illustrated in Fig. 1 (a)-(d), the as-prepared BTONWs (0 wt%, 1 wt%, 2 wt%, 3 wt%) were respectively added into the mixture solution (DMF/ACE = 6/4, w/w) and ultrasonic for 2 h to disrupt any entangled BTONWs. PVDF powder was added into the solvent and stirred for 2 h at 60 ℃ oil bath to obtain the precursor of 10 wt%. Similarly, 1.11g Nylon-11 pellets were added into 10g HFIP and stirred for 2 h. The home-made electrospinning setup was used for fabricating the nanofibers. Poured the precursors into a 10 ml syringe and pumped at a feeding rate of 1 mL/h with a 20 G needle. The electrospinning was performed at 21 KV, 17 cm of collecting distances and the rotating drum was set at 1500 rpm. Finally, the BTONWs-PVDF and pristine PVDF, Nylon-11 nanofibers were obtained on the aluminum foil.

For assembling the TENG, the as-electrospinning BTONWs-PVDF nanofibers deposited on Al foil were cut into a square of 4 × 4 cm² and were attached on a 3 mm thick acrylic and the PET film was used for enhanced the periodical separating and contacting, as Fig. 1 (e) and (f) shown. The copper wires were connected to the developed terminal measuring system.

Characterization

The scanning electron microscope (FEI Inspect F50) was used to investigate the surface morphology, cross-section morphology and elemental distribution of the prepared friction layer and mixture. Transmission electron microscope (TEM, FEI G2 F20) was used to investigate the crystallinity and doping characteristics of the prepared friction layer and mixture. X-ray diffraction (XRD, X’ Pert Pro MPD DY129) was used to characterise the friction layer and mixture. Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) (NEXUS-670) was used to characterise the infrared absorption of nylon-11 and its mixture. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AXIS-Supra). The electric voltage and current output were acquired from the Keithley 6514.

Figure 2(a) shows a typical SEM image of BTONWs synthesized through hydrothermal method, and the diameter of the BTONWs range from 80 to 200nm. To investigate the crystalline property, the as-grown BTONWs were analyzed by XRD. It can be seen from the Fig. 2. that all the reflection peaks show a tetragonal crystal structure, similar work has been found in [17]. Figure 2(b) show the distribution of the electric field around a rectangular electrode at different electric field strengths. The upper figure shows the distribution at lower electric field strengths, while the lower figure shows the distribution at higher electric field strengths. The electric field strength in the lower figure is significantly higher than that in the upper figure, indicating that the strength and range of the electric field can be significantly enhanced by increasing the electric field strength for the same electrode arrangement.

When the two films are squeezed close together, the potential difference reaches a minimum value. With the gradual release of the external force, the potential difference between the two films gradually increases. The whole process keeps cycling and the potential difference is minimised again. In the experiment, the operation mechanism of TENG is the vertical contact separation method of reciprocating motion.

Figure 3 (a) This figure shows the physical image of TENG fabricated using nylon11/BTONWs -PVDF. Figure 3(b) This figure shows the SEM image of nylon 11 fibres. It can be clearly shown in the image that the nylon 11 fibres exhibit a homogeneous network structure with relatively uniform fibre diameters, which are tightly aligned and have no obvious breaks or defects. This homogeneous fibre network helps to increase the surface area of the material, thus enhancing the friction electric effect. The smoothness and continuity of the fibre surface indicate that better process parameters were controlled during the preparation process to ensure the integrity and consistency of the fibres. Figure 3(c) is the SEM image of the negative friction electric layer BTONWs-PVDF. it shows in the image that the BTONWs-PVDF fibres form a more dense network structure, with the fibres interleaved with each other, constituting a complex three-dimensional network. Compared with the nylon 11 fibres, the BTONWs-PVDF fibres have a slightly different diameter distribution and a slightly rougher surface. This rough surface property contributes to the fibres' friction electrical properties, as the larger surface area increases charge generation and accumulation. The interwoven structure of the fibres ensures the mechanical stability and durability of the material while enhancing its potential as a friction material for TENG. These structural features enable the BTONWs-PVDF fibres to exhibit excellent performance in energy harvesting and conversion. Figure 3(d) demonstrates the SEM images of PVDF fibres doped with different mass ratios of BTONWs. The PVDF fibres doped with 1 wt% BTONWs formed a uniform and dense network structure, and the fibres were interspersed with each other to form a stable three-dimensional structure. The PVDF fibres doped with 2 wt% BTONWs had a denser network and increased surface area compared to 1 wt% doping, indicating that more BTONWs nanowires were successfully doped into the fibres. The structure of PVDF fibres doped with 3 wt% BTONWs was denser than the first two doping ratios, indicating that more BTONWs nanowires were contained within the fibres. Figure 3(e) is a scaled SEM of different doping ratios of BTONWs up to 1 um. The PVDF fibres doped with 1 wt% BTONWs show the details of the fibres. The surface of the fibres was slightly rough and the nanowires of BTONWs were uniformly distributed in the PVDF fibres, which enhances the mechanical strength and electrical properties of the material. The PVDF fibres doped with 2 wt% BTONWs show a higher percentage of BTONWs nanowires uniformly distributed inside the fibres, with a rougher fibre surface. This roughness further enhanced the friction electrical properties and helped to improve the electrical output of TENG. The PVDF fibres doped with 3 wt% BTONWs demonstrated a highly doped fibre structure. Although the surface roughness and the distribution of BTONWs increased further, excessive doping may lead to a decrease in the mechanical properties of the fibres. The surface roughness and structural density of the PVDF fibres increased as the percentage of BTONWs doping increased. These changes contribute to the improvement of the friction electrical properties, but there is also a need to find a balance between the mechanical and electrical properties to optimise the overall performance of the TENG. The XRD pattern of BTONWs is illustrated in Fig. 3(f), which shows the main diffraction peaks of BTONWs. Several distinct diffraction peaks are labelled in the figure, which appear in the range of 20° to 60°, corresponding to different crystal planes of the barium titanate crystals. The strongest diffraction peak is obtained from the (110) crystal plane, which appears at about 31.5 degrees, showing that the barium titanate nanowires have the strongest crystal orientation at the (110) crystal plane, and indicating the high crystallinity and good crystal structure of BTONWs. The clarity and intensity of the peaks show that the barium titanate nanowires have good crystal quality and well-defined orientation, and the high crystallinity and good orientation help to improve the electrical properties of the material. Figure 3(g) demonstrates the IR patterns of BTONWs doped PVDF with different mass ratios. Significant absorption peaks appear at about 1275 cm-¹ and 840 cm-¹, which correspond to the characteristic vibrations of the α-phase and β-phase crystalline forms of PVDF, respectively. The intensity of the β-phase vibration peaks (1275 cm-¹) increased with the increase of the mass ratio of BTONWs, while the α-phase vibration peaks (840 cm-¹) did not change much.The intensity of the β-phase vibration peaks increased while the α-phase vibration peaks gradually weakened at 840 cm-¹. The β-phase content of PVDF increases and the α-phase content decreases as the doping ratio of BTONWs increases. These IR spectral patterns indicate that the doping of BTONWs effectively promotes the crystallisation of the β-phase of PVDF, thus enhancing the friction electrical properties of the material. The β-phase crystallisation of PVDF is most significant at 3 wt% doping of BTONWs, indicating that the electrical properties of the material are optimal at this doping ratio. Through these IR spectra, Fig. 3(h) shows the XRD patterns of doped BTONWs in PVDF with different mass ratios. These XRD patterns indicate that the doping of BTONWs effectively promotes the crystallisation of the β-phase of PVDF, which enhances the friction electrical properties of the material. The β-phase crystallisation of PVDF is most significant at 3 wt% doping of BTONWs, indicating that the electrical properties of the material are optimal at this doping ratio.

Figure 4(a-c) display the performance metrics of a TENG with varying weight percentages of a material, likely BaTiO₃nanoparticles, mixed with PVDF. The graphs illustrate the short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and transferred charge quantity over time for TENGs containing 0 wt%, 1 wt%, 2 wt%, and 3 wt% of the material. The TENG with 2 wt% achieves the highest short-circuit current, peaking around 12㎂, demonstrating the most significant enhancement in electrical output. The 2 wt% TENG shows the highest open-circuit voltage, peaking around 240V, indicating the best performance in this series. The 2 wt% TENG exhibits the highest charge transfer quantity, peaking near 120nC. The 2 wt% concentration of BaTiO₃ in PVDF consistently provides the highest short-circuit current, open-circuit voltage, and transferred charge quantity, making it the optimal concentration for maximizing the TENG's electrical output. The 3 wt% concentration, while still improved over the baseline, does not perform as well as the 2 wt%, suggesting that an excess of the material might hinder the performance improvements. This analysis underscores the importance of optimizing material concentrations in the design and fabrication of high-performance TENGs.

Figure 4(d) demonstrates the variation of dielectric constant of BTONWs doped PVDF with different mass percentages as a function of frequency, ranging from 102 to 106 Hz.The dielectric constants of PVDF were significantly increased with the increase in the doping ratio of BTONWs. This indicates that the doping of BTONWs can effectively enhance the electrical properties of PVDF. The trend of decreasing dielectric constant with increasing frequency at all doping ratios may be related to the agglomeration. The aggregation reduces the effective surface area of the nanoparticles, weakens the interfacial polarisation effect, increases the conductivity loss, and leads to inhomogeneity in the internal structure and electric field distribution of the material.

Figure 5(a) plots the relationship between load resistance and both voltage and current. As the load resistance increases, the voltage initially rises, reaching a peak around 175V at an optimal resistance. Conversely, the current decreases with increasing resistance, indicating a trade-off between voltage and current. Figure 5(b) illustrates the power output as a function of resistance. The power output shows a sharp increase, peaking at around 0.648㎽ at 90㏁, and then gradually decreases as the resistance increases further. This confirms the optimal resistance for maximum power output, highlighting the importance of matching the load resistance to the TENG for efficient energy harvesting. Figure 5(c) shows the voltage as a function of time under different patting speeds. Initially, the TENG is subjected to slow patting, resulting in lower and more spaced-out voltage peaks. When the patting speed increases, the voltage peaks become more frequent and higher in magnitude, demonstrating the TENG’s responsiveness to varying mechanical inputs. Returning to slow patting shows a decrease in both frequency and magnitude of the voltage peaks. The external circuit diagram used for the experiment is shown in Fig. 5(d), Fig. 5(e) shown physical diagram of TENG of BTONWs-PVDF. In this experiment, a TENG was tested for its capability to generate and store electrical energy by continuously patting the device. The TENG's performance was evaluated by its ability to power a calculator, a timer, and an array of LED lights. The objective was to demonstrate the practical application of TENG in powering everyday electronic devices.The initial step involved connecting the TENG to a calculator. The calculator, as shown in Fig. 5(f), was initially off. After a series of pats on the TENG, the calculator powered on, displaying "666" on its screen. This indicated that the TENG successfully generated enough power to operate the calculator and was connected to a digital timer, depicted in Fig. 5 (g). Similar to the calculator, the timer was initially off. After patting the TENG, the timer powered on, displaying the time "1:37." This further validated the TENG's capability to generate and store sufficient energy for practical use. Finally, TENG drives an array of LEDs by rectifying them.. Figure 5 (h-i) shown the yellow and green LED array before and after being powered by the TENG. Initially, the LEDs were off. Upon patting the TENG, the yellow and green LEDs lit up, demonstrating the TENG's ability to provide continuous and reliable power to light multiple LEDs. This part of the experiment showcased the TENG's potential for lighting applications, especially in low-power scenarios.

Through these experiments, the TENG demonstrated its efficiency in generating and storing energy, enough to power common electronic devices like calculators, timers, and LED lights. The results underline the practical potential of TENG technology for sustainable and portable energy solutions in real-world applications.

In this study, a TENG was fabricated by using nylon-11 as the triboelectric positive material and PVDF mixed BTONWs as the triboelectric negative material. The fibre surface morphology of the triboelectric material was investigated, and the effect of the output electrical properties with different mass ratios of BTONWs was tested, and the experiments showed that 2w% of BTONWs can significantly improve the output electrical properties, short- circuit current was 12µA, open-circuit voltage arrived 240V, charge transfer quantity resulted 120nC. In addition, using the calculator and timer, 120 LEDs were lighted by simple external circuit, and the finally result was that the calculator and timer worked normally and the LEDs were lighted at the same time when the TENG was tapped continuously.

This experiment shows that the new composite substance TENG can be used as a micro-generator, and the fabric-based generator has good durability. In conclusion, the micro nanogenerator using nylon-11/BTONWs-PVDF has a good prospect in the use of wearable devices, with the advantages of lightweight, portable, self-powered, and inexpensive.

SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL

In the supplementary material, S-video-1 and S-video-2 shows that the 120 green and yellow LEDs in series can be illuminated all together just by the TENG during the periodical pressing and releasing processes. S-video-3 shows that the commercial calculator can be powered by storing energy in a 47 μF capacitor charged TENG. S-video-4 shows that the timer can also be powered.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This work was supported by Natural Science Foundation Project of Chongqing Science & Technology Commission through Grant No. 51671137..

AUTHOR DECLARATIONS

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

DATA AVAILABILITY

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

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No competing interests reported.

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High-Performance Energy Harvesting and Continuous Output Using nylon-11/BaTiO₃-PVDF Triboelectric Nanogenerators with Strong Dielectric Properties

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Abstract

Figures

INTRODUCTION

EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

MATERIALS

Preparation of BTONWs

Electrospinning and fabrication of triboelectric nanogenerator

Characterization

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CONCLUSION

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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