Effects of Maturation Stage on Physical Fitness in Youth Male Team Sports Players After Plyometric Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4876519/v1

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Effects of Maturation Stage on Physical Fitness in Youth Male Team Sports Players After Plyometric Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4876519/v1

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Background：A comprehensive summary of the effects of plyometric training （PT） on multiple physical fitness indicators in youth athletes at different maturation stages, as well as on a broader range of sports, has not yet been conducted.This study aims to comprehensively summarize the effects of plyometric training on multiple physical fitness indicators of young male team athletes at different stages of maturity.

Methods：This systematic review and meta-analysis followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Three databases (PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS) were searched. Study eligibility was rated using the PICOS method, and methodological quality was assessed with the PEDro scale. A random-effects model calculated the meta-analysis, reporting Hedge's g effect sizes (ES) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05. Egger’s test assessed bias, with the trim and fill method applied if necessary. Subgroup analyses and meta-regression calculations of training variables were performed.

Result：A total of 31 studies were included, involving 717 soccer players, 146 basketball players, 54 handball players, and 110 volleyball players. Compared to the control group, PT improved the following metrics across all age groups combined: Countermovement jump (CMJ) height (ES = 0.761), Standing long jump (SLJ) distance (ES = 0.572), ≤10-m linear sprint time (ES = -0.709), >10-m linear sprint time (ES = -0.488), and change-of-direction (COD) time (ES = -0.896).In the 10 to 12.99 years age group (PRE), PT improved CMJ height (ES = 0.73), SLJ distance (ES = 0.441), ≤10-m linear sprint time (ES = -0.431), >10-m linear sprint time (ES = -0.307), and COD time (ES = -0.783). In the 13 to 15.99 years age group (MID), PT improved CMJ height (ES = 0.523), >10-m linear sprint time (ES = -0.37), and COD time (ES = -0.635). In the 16 to 18 years age group (POST), PT improved CMJ height (ES = 1.053), SLJ distance (ES = 1.329), ≤10-m linear sprint time (ES = -1.81), >10-m linear sprint time (ES = -1.18), and COD time (ES = -1.665).There were no significant differences in adaptations for maximal strength in all groups, SLJ distance and ≤10 m linear sprint time in the MID group (all p > 0.05).Meta-regression showed that training variables could not predict the impact of PT on physical fitness. Subgroup analysis showed that when the total number of training sessions was ≥16 (ES = 1.061), there was a significantly greater improvement in CMJ height compared to fewer than 16 training sessions (ES = 0.36) (p = 0.002).

Conclusion：Compared to the control group, PT can improve CMJ height, SLJ distance, ≤10-m linear sprint time, >10-m linear sprint time, and COD time in youth male team sports players across all age groups. However, PT does not improve maximal strength. The trend of improvement appears to be best during the late adolescence stage. In contrast, during mid-adolescence, SLJ distance and ≤10-m linear sprint time did not improve, and the improvements in CMJ height and COD time seem to be the least pronounced during this stage.

Plyometric exercise

Team sports

Youth sports

Physical fitness

maturation

Team sports such as soccer, basketball, handball, and volleyball require athletes to frequently perform high-intensity actions such as jumping, sprinting, and change of direction (COD) during games. These actions demand highly developed physical fitness in youth athletes^1–3. Explosive power, agility, and strength are crucial for athletes to score during competitions^4,5. In basketball games, jumping occurs approximately once per minute, and athletes need to perform numerous sprints and high-intensity lateral movements^6,7. Linear sprints and vertical jumps have been shown to be the most common actions preceding goals in soccer⁵. Furthermore, high levels of jumping, sprinting, and COD abilities have been proven to effectively distinguish elite athletes from non-elite athletes^8,9.

Plyometric training (PT) is widely recognized for its effectiveness in enhancing various physical performance attributes¹⁰. It typically involves exercises that use the stretch-shortening cycle (SSC), where a rapid concentric action follows an eccentric action¹¹. This process leverages the natural elastic components of muscles and tendons, as well as the stretch reflex, to increase the power of subsequent movements¹². The SSC enhances the neuromuscular and tendon systems' ability to generate maximum force in the shortest time, making PT a bridge between strength and speed¹³. This training method is particularly beneficial for improving jumping ability¹⁴, sprint speed¹⁴, COD speed¹⁵, and maximal strength¹⁶, all of which are crucial for success in team sports. Additionally, research by Kons et al.¹⁷suggests that athletes in team sports might adapt better to PT due to the greater specificity of jumping tasks during training and competition. However, the impact of PT may vary depending on the maturation stage of youth athletes, as developmental stages influence their physiological adaptability to training¹⁸.

For adolescents, maturation status may be a crucial factor influencing training response¹⁹. During the developmental process of adolescents, a series of biological changes occur, such as rapid increases in height, significant gains in lean body mass, and alterations in muscle-tendon structures^20,21. These factors can affect the improvement of physical fitness following PT²². Additionally, when training strategies are combined with the natural developmental processes of physical fitness, it may provide more effective maturation-related training stimuli, thereby significantly enhancing training outcomes²³. Therefore, considering the maturation status of adolescents is essential when designing their training programs.

Existing literature has explored the adaptations of youth soccer players at different age stages following PT. Moran et al.¹⁹conducted a meta-analysis on the adaptation of youth male soccer players to PT in terms of countermovement jump (CMJ). The results showed that PT had a moderate effect on increasing CMJ height, with greater adaptive responses observed in the 10 to 12.99 years age group (ES = 0.91) and the 16 to 18 years age group (ES = 1.02). Despite undergoing more training, the 13 to 15.99 years age group (ES = 0.47) showed a lower adaptive response to PT. Another systematic review and meta-analysis by Asadi et al.¹⁵examined the effect of PT on the COD ability in youth male soccer players. The results indicated that PT significantly improved COD ability across all age groups (ES = 0.86), with higher adaptive effects observed in the 13 to 15.99 years age group (ES = 0.95) and the 16 to 18 years age group (ES = 0.99), whereas the 10 to 12.99 years age group showed lower adaptive effects (ES = 0.68). This suggests that PT's effectiveness in improving different physical fitness attributes varies with maturation stages.

Although these studies have revealed the adaptations of youth soccer players at different maturation stages to PT, they mainly focus on single physical fitness indicators and a limited range of sports. However, a comprehensive understanding of PT's effects on multiple physical fitness indicators and a broader spectrum of sports in youth athletes is still lacking. Therefore, this study aims to provide a more extensive summary, exploring the overall impact of PT on various physical fitness indicators, such as sprint speed, jumping ability (including vertical and horizontal jumps), COD ability, and maximal strength. Additionally, this study encompasses a wider range of team sports (such as soccer, basketball, handball, and volleyball) to offer a more comprehensive perspective.

This review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines for systematic reviews²⁴. This study was registered with the International Platform of Registered Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis Protocols (No. 202470059).

2.1 Literature Search: Management and Update

An electronic search was conducted in the databases PubMed (4956 results), Web of Science (3686 results), and Scopus (4930 results) without any time restrictions. The search strategy involved using Boolean operators AND and OR with the following keywords: “plyometric”, “ballistic”, “stretch-shortening cycle”, “jump training”, “Youth”, “Young”, “Teen”, “Puberty”, “Maturation”, “Agility”, “direction”, “balance”, “Stability”, “velocity”, “Sprint”, “Jump”, “Explosive”, “Muscle”, “Power”, and “strength”. The results of the systematic literature search from the three databases were combined and duplicates were removed. After the removal of duplicates, two researchers screened the search results based on the inclusion criteria.

2.2 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The studies were screened using the PICOS (Participants, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study design) method²⁵. Table 1 lists the inclusion/exclusion criteria. The additional inclusion criteria were as follows: (1) experimental trials published in peer-reviewed English-language journals, providing full-text access; (2) interventions exclusively using plyometric training (PT), excluding studies that combined PT with weight training to avoid the effects of combined training.

Table 1

Eligibility criteria
Category	Inclusion criteria	Exclusion criteria
Population	Group average age is between 10 and 18 years old, consisting of male adolescent team sport athletes, with no restrictions on their fitness level or competitive level	Participants who are unable to participate in the plyometric training program due to health issues
Intervention	Plyometric training lasting ≥ 4 weeks	Implement an intervention combining plyometric training and weight training
Comparator	The study must include an experimental group undergoing plyometric training and a comparable control group. The control group must not engage in any plyometric training	A study without a control group
Outcome	At least 1 measure of physical fitness (e.g., countermovement jump) before and after the training intervention	There are no indicators related to physical fitness (e.g., countermovement jump) before and after the training intervention
Study design	Controlled trials	Non-controlled trials

2.3 Data Extraction

Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Corp., Redmond, WA, USA) was used to extract the means and standard deviations of the dependent variables before and after the intervention from the included studies. The first author extracted the physical fitness indicators such as jumps (e.g., CMJ), linear sprints (e.g., 10 m, 20 m), COD ability (e.g., Illinois test), and strength (e.g., 1 repetition maximum half-squat) from the included studies as dependent variables. Additionally, subject health status, gender, sample size, sport, years of practice, and intervention descriptions (exercise type, intensity, duration, and frequency) were extracted. The second author checked the accuracy and completeness of the extracted data. Moreover, age groupings previously used by researchers^15,19(10-12.99 years = pre-peak height velocity [PRE], 13-15.99 years = mid-peak height velocity [MID], 16–18 years = post-peak height velocity [POST]) were used to estimate the possible maturation status of participants in each study.

2.4 Quality Assessment

The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies²⁶. The quality assessment was interpreted using the following 10-point scale: a score of ≤ 3 was considered to indicate poor quality, 4–5 indicated fair quality, and 6–10 indicated high quality. The PEDro scale consists of 11 items designed to evaluate methodological quality. Each satisfied item contributes 1 point to the overall PEDro score (range 0–10 points). Item 1 was not included in the quality rating of the studies as it pertains to external validity.

2.5 Summary Measures, Synthesis of Results, and Publication Bias

The pre- and post-training means and standard deviations (SD) for each dependent variable were used to calculate the effect sizes (ES; Hedge's g) for each physical fitness indicator in both the PT and control groups. A random-effects model was employed to account for variability between studies that might affect the PT effects^27,28. ES values were expressed with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). The calculated ES were interpreted using the following scale: trivial: <0.2; small: 0.2–0.6; moderate: >0.6–1.2; large: >1.2-2.0; very large: >2.0–4.0; and extremely large: >4.0²⁹. Heterogeneity was assessed using the I² statistic, with values of < 25%, 25%-75%, and > 75% representing low, moderate, and high levels of heterogeneity, respectively³⁰. The extended Egger test was used to explore the risk of bias³¹. In cases of bias, the trim and fill method was applied for adjustments³². All analyses were conducted using Stata/SE software v.15.1 (StataCorp, College Station, TX). Statistical significance was set at p ≤ 0.05.

2.6 Subgroup Analysis

Subgroup analyses were performed using median split techniques to divide moderator variables (frequency, training duration, and total sessions). The median was calculated when at least three studies provided data for the moderator variable. Additionally, to minimize heterogeneity, the median was calculated for specific age groups and outcome indicators.

2.7 Meta-Regression

Multivariable random-effects meta-regression was conducted to verify whether any training variables (frequency, training duration, and total sessions) could predict the effects of PT on physical fitness variables. Meta-regression calculations were performed only if there were at least 10 studies for each covariate³³.

3.1 Study Selection

The search process identified 13,572 studies (4956 from PubMed, 4930 from Scopus, and 4226 from Web of Science), resulting in a total of 7,885 studies after removing duplicates. Ultimately, 31 studies were included in this meta-analysis^12,34–63. Figure 1 illustrates the study selection process. Table 2 displays the characteristics of participants in the included studies.

Table 2

Characteristics of participants examined in the included studies.
Study	n^a	Age^b (years)	Height^b (cm)	Weight^b (kg)	sport	Frequency (days/week)	Duration (weeks)
PRE
Asadi et al.(2018)³⁴	10/10	11.5/11.7	138.3/137.4	31/33.1	Soccer	2	6
Drouzas et al.(2020)³⁷	23/22	10/10.2	139.2/141.6	36.1/38.5	Soccer	2	10
Jlid et al.(2019)⁴⁶	14/14	11.8/11.6	143/142	36.5/34.2	Soccer	2	8
Kurt et al.(2023)⁴⁷	11/11/10	12.09 ± 0.89	155.01 ± 9.97	44.59 ± 8.04	Soccer	2	6
McKinlay et al.(2018)⁴⁸	13/14	12.6/12.5	157.8/152.1	47.2/41.3	Soccer	3	8
Michailidis et al.(2013)⁴⁹	24/21	10.7/10.6	147/145	42.5/41.7	Soccer	2	12
Negra et al.(2020)⁵¹	13/11	12.7/12.7	158.6/152	43.7/39.9	Soccer	2	8
Negra et al.(2020)⁵⁰	11/11	12.7/12.8	156.4/153.2	45.9/42.5	Soccer	2	12
Padrón-Cabo et al.(2021)⁵²	10/10	12.6/12.39	161.2/158	48.9/46.75	Soccer	2	6
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2020)⁵⁸	8/7	12.9/12.6	154/155.9	44.4/45.6	Soccer	2	8
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2020)⁵⁸	8/7	12.1/12.6	159.3/155.9	45.6/45.6	Soccer	2	8
Sammoud et al.(2022)⁶⁰	11/11	12.7/12.8	156.4/153.2	45.9/42.6	Soccer	2	12
Vera-Assaoka et al.(2020)⁶²	16/16	11.2/11.5	143/141	36.8/35.8	Soccer	2	7
Zribi et al.(2014)⁶³	25/26	12.1/12.2	155.5/154.8	41.1/41.2	Basketball	2	9
MID
Asadi et al.(2018)³⁴	10/10	14/14.2	154.5/150.1	43.5/41.2	Soccer	2	6
Buga et al.(2022)³⁵	12/12	13.08/13.58	165.75/166.75	58.19/57.71	Basketball	2	8
Buga et al.(2022)³⁵	12/12	13.17/13.58	163.83/166.75	55.36/57.71	Basketball	2	8
Fathi et al.(2019)³⁸	20/20	14.6/14.5	178.1/173.9	67.9/63.4	Volleyball	2	16
Fernandes Correia et al.(2020)³⁹	6/7	15.83/15.43	183/174	70.78/72.94	Basketball	2	6
Hammami et al.(2016)⁴¹	15/13	15.7/15.8	176/176	59/58.2	Soccer	2	8
Hammami et al.(2019)⁴²	14/12	15.7/15.8	175/168	58.9/58.3	Soccer	2	8
Hernandez-Martinez et al.(2023)⁴⁵	14/13	14.5/15	168/162	57.1/59.8	Volleyball	2	8
Meylan et al.(2009)¹²	14/11	13.3/13.1	159/163	48.6/47.4	Soccer	2	8
Paes et al.(2022)⁵³	6/7	15.83/15.43	183/174	70.78/72.94	Volleyball	2	6
Palma-Muñoz et al.(2021)⁵⁴	8/7	13.8/14	159.8/159	62.6/61.5	Basketball	2	6
Palma-Muñoz et al.(2021)⁵⁴	7/7	14.6/14	161.4/159	61.9/61.5	Basketball	2	6
Pramono et al.(2023)⁵⁵	15/15	13–15	157–170	57–67	Volleyball	2	8
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2018)⁵⁶	25/24	13.9/13.7	153/155	46.7/49.1	Soccer	2	7
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2018)⁵⁶	24/24	13.1/13.7	153/155	47.2/49.1	Soccer	2	7
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2019)⁵⁷	19/20	13.2/13.5	154/155	48.6/49.1	Soccer	2	7
Santos et al.(2011)⁶¹	14/10	15/14.5	172.9/173.2	62.6/61.1	Basketball	2	10
Vera-Assaoka et al.(2020)⁶²	22/22	14.4/14.5	163/162	54.7/55.8	Soccer	2	7
POST
Asadi et al.(2018)³⁴	10/10	16.6/16.2	171.5/176.4	60.6/62.4	Soccer	2	6
Chelly et al.(2014)³⁶	12/11	17.1/17.2	181/177	80.1/78	Handball	2	6
Fonseca et al.(2022)⁴⁰	9/8	17.3/17.3	175.9/174.6	65.4/68.3	Soccer	2	6
Hammami et al.(2020)⁴³	12/12	16.2/16.4	178/178	59.8/58.9	Soccer	2	10
Hammami et al.(2020)⁴⁴	10/10	16.4/16.5	178/179	69.7/70.5	Handball	3	7
Hammami et al.(2020)⁴⁴	11/10	16.2/16.5	180/179	70.8/70.5	Handball	3	7
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2020)⁵⁹	12/12	16.9/17.1	172.3/174.9	64.9/66.8	Soccer	2	7
Ramirez-Campillo et al.(2020)⁵⁹	14/12	17.1/17.1	172.6/174.9	65.4/66.8	Soccer	2	7

^a The sample size of the experimental group/control group (when a study includes two usable experimental groups, the sample size is represented as experimental group/experimental group/control group).

^b The mean values of the experimental group/control group (mean ± SD representing the combined data of the experimental and control groups).

3.2 Methodological Quality Assessment

Using the PEDro checklist, 7 studies were considered to be of moderate quality (4–5 points), and the remaining 24 studies were considered to be of high quality (6–10 points) .(Supplementary Table 1).

3.3. Results of the Meta-Analysis

The overall effects of PT on physical fitness are shown in Table 3. The forest plots are provided in Supplementary Figures S1-S6.

3.3.1 Jump Performance

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving the CMJ height of youth overall (combined across all age groups) [ES = 0.761, 95% CI: (0.507, 1.016), P < 0.01]. Significant improvements in CMJ height were observed across different age stages: PRE [ES = 0.73, 95% CI: (0.18, 1.28), P < 0.01]; MID [ES = 0.523, 95% CI: (0.285, 0.761), P < 0.01]; POST [ES = 1.215, 95% CI: (0.636, 1.793), P < 0.01].(Supplementary Fig. S1).

PT had a significant effect on improving the SLJ distance of youth overall [ES = 0.572, 95% CI: (0.318, 0.826), P < 0.01]. Significant improvements in SLJ distance were observed in PRE and POST: PRE [ES = 0.441, 95% CI: (0.162, 0.721), P < 0.01]; POST [ES = 1.329, 95% CI: (0.519, 2.139), P < 0.01]. There was no significant improvement in SLJ distance for youth in MID [ES = 0.291, 95% CI: (-0.19, 0.772), P > 0.05].(Supplementary Fig. S2).

3.3.2 Linear Sprint Performance

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving the ≤ 10 m sprint performance of youth overall [ES = -0.709, 95% CI: (-0.998, -0.421), P < 0.01]. Significant improvements in ≤ 10 m sprint performance were observed in both PRE [ES = -0.431, 95% CI: (-0.678, -0.184), P < 0.01] and POST [ES = -1.81, 95% CI: (-2.527, -1.093), P < 0.01]. There was no significant improvement in ≤ 10 m sprint performance for youth in MID [ES = -0.433, 95% CI: (-0.869, -0.002), P > 0.05].(Supplementary Fig. S3).

PT also had a significant effect on improving the > 10 m sprint performance of youth overall [ES = -0.488, 95% CI: (-0.657, -0.319), P < 0.01]. Significant improvements in > 10 m sprint performance were observed across different age stages: PRE [ES = -0.307, 95% CI: (-0.514, -0.1), P < 0.01]; MID [ES = -0.37, 95% CI: (-0.576, -0.163), P < 0.01]; POST [ES = -1.18, 95% CI: (-1.777, -0.584), P < 0.01].(Supplementary Fig. S4).

3.3.3 Change of Direction

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving the COD of youth overall [ES = -0.896, 95% CI: (-1.16, -0.631), P < 0.01]. Significant improvements in COD were observed across different age stages: PRE [ES = -0.783, 95% CI: (-1.202, -0.364), P < 0.01]; MID [ES = -0.635, 95% CI: (-0.912, -0.358), P < 0.01]; POST [ES = -1.665, 95% CI: (-2.339, -0.99), P < 0.01].(Supplementary Fig. S5).

3.3.4 Maximal Strength

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had no significant effect on improving the maximal strength of youth overall [ES = 0.2, 95% CI: (-0.034, 0.435), P > 0.05]. No significant improvements in maximal strength were observed for youth in PRE [ES = 0.052, 95% CI: (-0.399, 0.502), P > 0.05] and MID [ES = 0.255, 95% CI: (-0.019, 0.53), P > 0.05].(Supplementary Fig. S6).

Table 3

Synthesis of results across included studies regarding the effects of plyometric training on physical fitness in male adolescent team sport athletes.
	n^a	ES (95%CI)	%Weight	p	I²	Egger’s test (p)
Countermovement jump height
PRE	10	0.73(0.18 to 1.28)	35.39%	0.009	79.6%	0.882
MID	12	0.523(0.285 to 0.761)	43.06%	<0.001	18.4%	0.206
POST	7(8)	1.053(0.459 to 1.648)^b	21.54%	0.001	61.4%	0.009
all	29	0.761(0.507 to 1.016)	100%	<0.001	65.6%	0.054
Standing long jump distance
PRE	8	0.441(0.162 to 0.721)	60.18%	0.002	0%	0.434
MID	3	0.291(-0.19 to 0.772)	21.59%	0.236	0%	0.032^c
POST	3	1.329(0.519 to 2.139)	18.23%	0.001	55.9%	0.47
all	14	0.572(0.318 to 0.826)	100%	<0.001	22.7%	0.112
≤ 10-m linear sprint time
PRE	9	-0.431(-0.678 to -0.184)	40.22%	0.001	0%	0.457
MID	9	-0.433(-0.869 to -0.002)	38.89%	0.051	62.8%	0.408
POST	6	-1.81(-2.527 to -1.093)	20.89%	<0.001	63.9%	0.002^c
all	24	-0.709(-0.998 to -0.421)	100%	<0.001	65.7%	0.003^c
>10-m linear sprint time
PRE	14	-0.307(-0.514 to -0.1)	41.52%	0.004	0%	0.972
MID	12	-0.37(-0.576 to -0.163)	39.35%	<0.001	0%	0.324
POST	8	-1.18(-1.777 to -0.584)	19.13%	<0.001	69.6%	<0.001^c
all	34	-0.488(-0.657 to -0.319)	100%	<0.001	35.5%	0.004^c
change-of-direction time
PRE	9	-0.783(-1.202 to -0.364)	39.71%	<0.001	57.7%	0.12
MID	9	-0.635(-0.912 to -0.358)	41.72%	<0.001	19.4%	0.311
POST	5	-1.665(-2.339 to -0.99)	18.57%	<0.001	56.4%	0.012^c
all	23	-0.896(-1.16 to -0.631)	100%	<0.001	58%	0.001^c
Maximal strength
PRE	3	0.052(-0.399 to 0.502)	27.08%	0.822	0%	0.648
MID	5	0.255(-0.019 to 0.53)	72.92%	0.068	0%	0.34
POST	0
all	8	0.2(-0.034 to 0.435)	100%	0.094	0%	0.034^c

^a The data are represented as the number of studies providing data (with the number of studies after the trim and fill method shown in parentheses).

^b Values adjusted using the trim and fill method.

^c Values adjusted using the trim and fill method remained the same (identical to observed values).

3.4 Results of Subgroup Analysis

When the total number of training sessions was ≥16 (ES = 1.061), there was a significantly greater improvement in CMJ height compared to fewer than 16 training sessions (ES = 0.36) (p = 0.002).(Supplementary Table 2).

3.5 Results of the Meta-Regression

Meta-regression calculations were performed only for outcome indicators with at least 10 studies per covariate. After excluding outcome indicators with collinearity issues, meta-regression analysis was conducted for CMJ height (combined across all age groups): training duration (p = 0.016), training frequency (p = 0.014), and total sessions (p = 0.017),R²=0.19.(Supplementary Table 3).

4.1 Jump Performance

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving CMJ height and SLJ distance in youth overall (combined across all age groups). Significant improvements in CMJ height were observed for PRE, MID, and POST, with POST and MID showing the greatest and least improvements, respectively. Significant improvements in SLJ distance were observed for PRE and POST, with POST showing the greatest improvement trend. No significant improvements were observed for MID in SLJ distance.

The effectiveness of PT in enhancing CMJ performance in youth athletes is consistent with previous meta-analyses¹⁹. The improvements in jump performance after PT may be attributed to various adaptive mechanisms, such as enhanced neural drive to the active muscles, improved SSC utilization, better intermuscular coordination, and changes in muscle structure¹⁰.

Specifically, during different maturation stages, youth in the PRE stage have greater tendon compliance^64,65. More compliant muscle-tendon units can store and release more elastic energy, enhancing SSC performance¹⁰. Additionally, PT not only induces favorable neuromuscular adaptations¹⁰ but also promotes adaptations in bone⁶⁶ and muscle-tendon units^67,68. The combined effect of these training adaptations and natural development contributes to improved jump performance.

However, the improvements in jump performance during the MID stage are not as ideal as in other stages. This may be due to this period being the fastest growth phase for males⁶⁹, with different growth spurts in trunk and leg lengths⁷⁰. The legs reach peak growth velocity before peak height velocity, while the trunk reaches peak growth velocity afterward²⁰, leading to a higher center of gravity⁷¹. Additionally, rapid weight gain⁷¹ and the inability of neural pathways to quickly adapt to substantial changes in body size⁷² complicate the control of the trunk during PT in youth⁷³, thereby affecting training benefits.

In the POST stage, PT shows the most noticeable improvement in jump performance among the three age groups. By this time, the "adolescent awkwardness" phenomenon diminishes, muscle mass and circulating hormone concentrations increase⁷⁴, and the central nervous system matures, enhancing motor unit recruitment and neuromuscular coordination⁷⁵. Furthermore, with age, muscle activation strategies shift from reactive, protective inhibition to preparatory, performance-enhancing excitation⁷⁶. These factors contribute to maximizing PT benefits in the POST stage.

Further subgroup analysis revealed that when the total sessions of PT were ≥16, the improvement in CMJ height across all age groups was significantly greater than with fewer than 16 total sessions (ES = 1.061 vs. ES = 0.36, p < 0.01). This may be because higher training volumes provide athletes with sufficient time and opportunity to adapt and strengthen muscle and neural responses⁷⁷. Continuous training allows athletes to better master and apply PT techniques, resulting in significant improvements in CMJ performance.

In practical application, trainers should adjust the intensity and type of PT based on the maturation stage of youth athletes to maximize training effects. Particularly during the MID stage, focusing on coordination training can help athletes navigate this "awkward period" and lay the foundation for improved power performance in later stages. Additionally, appropriately increasing the total sessions of PT can strengthen the muscle and nervous system and enhance adaptation to PT.

4.2 Sprint Performance

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving both ≤10 m and >10 m sprints in youth overall (combined across all age groups). Significant improvements were observed in ≤10 m sprints for PRE and POST, with POST showing a greater improvement trend, while there was no significant improvement for MID. Significant improvements were observed in >10 m sprints for PRE, MID, and POST, with POST showing the greatest improvement trend and PRE the smallest.

Sprint performance is the product of stride rate and stride length³⁴, and PT can improve both stride frequency and stride length^78,79. The enhanced sprint performance following PT is likely due to increased neuromuscular activation of the muscles, including increased discharge frequency of active motor units and changes in their recruitment patterns⁸⁰.

Younger adolescents exhibit more inhibitory mechanisms and lower neuromuscular efficiency compared to older adolescents⁸¹. They activate higher levels of antagonistic muscles immediately after ground contact⁸² and have lower stretch reflex responses than adults^65,83, a phenomenon more pronounced in the PRE stage. Additionally, the premotor cortex cannot accurately maintain postural control and adapt to rapid corrections during SSC movements by controlling the appropriate motor units⁸⁴.

As leg and vertical stiffness increase with maturation, eccentric and concentric contact times may decrease⁸⁵. Reduced ground contact time requires a higher rate of force development and more efficient reuse of elastic energy to maintain the center of mass displacement⁸⁴. Although the ability to utilize and generate power develops throughout an athlete’s maturation, the power generation in MID adolescents is still not high enough⁸⁴. These complex interactions likely result in less ideal sprint performance improvements in the MID stage compared to the POST stage. For ≤10 m sprints, the abilities related to horizontal force and postural control are particularly important during the acceleration phase⁸⁶, and the poorer trunk control in MID adolescents⁷² may explain the lack of significant improvements in ≤10 m sprint performance after PT.

Maturation plays a crucial role in energy storage and utilization and in the development of SSC at maximum sprint speed⁸⁵. With age, increases in testosterone, growth hormone, and IGF-1 contribute to the accumulation of lean mass and the relative reduction of body fat. By age 18, most males have attained 90% of their final total skeletal mass⁸⁷. This increase in strength is associated with faster sprint performance in adolescents⁸⁸. Additionally, sprint performance naturally develops due to increased muscle size, limb length, changes in tendon tissue, enhanced neural and motor development, and better movement quality and coordination⁸⁹.

4.3 Change of Direction

Meta-analysis results showed that PT had a significant effect on improving COD in youth overall (combined across all age groups). Significant improvements in COD were observed for PRE, MID, and POST, with POST showing the greatest improvement trend and MID the least. Unlike previous meta-analyses¹⁵, PT showed a lower improvement trend for COD in MID compared to other stages.

The potential mechanisms underlying COD improvements after PT are likely related to neuromuscular adaptations, such as enhanced motor unit recruitment and discharge frequency^22,90. Specifically, improvements in COD require rapid force development, eccentric strength of the thigh muscles, and quick transitions of the leg extensors from eccentric to concentric muscle actions, which PT seems to enhance^91,92.

In different maturation stages, improvements in COD performance during the PRE stage may be primarily due to factors such as increased motor unit activation, faster contraction velocity, enhanced pre-activation, and greater reliance on short-latency stretch reflexes, leading to more feedforward SSC function²². Although strength development is slower in the PRE stage⁷⁵, better motor unit recruitment or neural adaptations following PT can improve COD performance²².

Effective translation of PT into COD performance might require a certain level of motor coordination, as PT can be technically challenging for younger athletes⁹³. Additionally, Young et al.⁹⁴ suggested that agility tasks might be more influenced by motor control factors than muscle strength or power. In the MID stage, the weaker trend in COD improvements compared to other stages might be due to rapid lengthening of the trunk and limbs, sudden weight gain, and changes in the center of gravity^70,71, all of which can lead to a decline in coordination related to physical development⁹⁵, thereby interfering with training adaptations⁹³. Specific sensorimotor mechanisms may also degrade during rapid adolescent growth, such as neuromuscular control, postural stability, and inter-limb/segmental coordination⁷².

In the POST stage, athletes typically exhibit greater strength due to increased muscle mass, elevated testosterone levels, and enhanced motor control^96–98. Higher strength levels are closely linked to faster sprint performance in adolescents⁸⁸, and high sprint speeds over short distances are closely related to COD⁹⁹. Additionally, PT can enhance the eccentric strength of the thigh muscles, which is crucial for deceleration during impulsive movements⁹¹. This enhanced eccentric strength facilitates rapid transitions of the leg extensors from eccentric to concentric muscle actions, promoting changes in direction¹⁵. PT can also positively impact COD performance by reducing ground reaction time through increased muscle power output and movement efficiency¹⁰⁰. The combined effects of these training adaptations and natural development contribute to the improvement in COD performance during the POST stage.

4.4 Maximal Strength

Meta-analysis results showed no significant improvement in maximal strength following PT. This is inconsistent with previous meta-analyses¹⁰¹, which might be attributed to the absence of studies on the post-peak height velocity (PHV) stage in this research, as accelerated strength gains occur during the post-PHV stage⁷⁴.

Muscle hypertrophy can enhance muscle strength¹⁰². Older adolescents may exhibit greater muscle plasticity after PT, including increases in muscle size, a shift from type I to type II muscle fibers, changes in muscle pennation angle, enhanced muscle contraction capabilities, improved motor unit recruitment, and increased neural drive to the active muscles¹⁰. In contrast, younger male adolescents have lower hormone levels, which are less conducive to muscle mass increase¹⁰³.

It is noteworthy that the meta-analysis by Oliver et al. indicated that combined plyometric and strength training is about three times more effective in improving lower limb maximal strength compared to PT alone, highlighting the impact of training specificity¹⁰⁴. Integrating this combined training approach into the development of high-level, well-trained youth athletes appears to be more desirable.

Compared to the control group, PT can improve CMJ, SLJ, ≤10 m sprint, >10 m sprint, and change of direction in youth male team sports players overall (combined across all age groups), but it does not improve maximal strength. Specifically, the improvement trends are best during the POST stage. However, during the MID stage, there are no improvements in SLJ and ≤10 m sprints, and the improvement trends for CMJ and change of direction are the lowest. This suggests that the MID stage is less ideal for adaptations in various physical fitness attributes. These results highlight the importance of considering the physiological development stages of youth male team sports players when implementing PT to develop personalized and effective training programs. Future research should focus on how to further enhance adaptations to PT during different maturation stages, particularly during the MID stage.

CI Confidence interval

ES Effect size

I² Impact of statistical heterogeneity

PICOS Participants, intervention, comparators, outcomes, and study design

PEDro Physiotherapy Evidence DatabasePEDro Physiotherapy Evidence Database

PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta‐Analyses

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Not applicable.

Consent for Publication

Not applicable.

Availability of Data and Materials

All data generated or analyzed during this study are presented in the form of tables, figures, and/or electronic supplementary materials in the article.

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding

1.Guangdong Provincial Philosophy and Social Sciences Regularization Project 2022 (GD22CTY09): Research on the Coordinated Development Path of International Competitiveness in Sports in the Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macao Greater Bay Area.

2.National Social Science Fund of China (General Project), "Research on the Reproduction of Traditional Chinese Martial Arts Culture in the New Era"(20BTY103).

Author Contributions

All authors participated in the completion of the article together.

Acknowledgements

Not applicable.

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Effects of Maturation Stage on Physical Fitness in Youth Male Team Sports Players After Plyometric Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

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2.3 Data Extraction

2.4 Quality Assessment

2.5 Summary Measures, Synthesis of Results, and Publication Bias

2.6 Subgroup Analysis

2.7 Meta-Regression

3. Results

3.1 Study Selection

3.2 Methodological Quality Assessment

3.3. Results of the Meta-Analysis

3.3.1 Jump Performance

3.3.2 Linear Sprint Performance

3.3.3 Change of Direction

3.3.4 Maximal Strength

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Supplementary Files

Status:

Version 1