Table 1 depicts the result for socio-demographic characteristics of the elderly along with the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes among them by various background characteristics. The result noted a higher prevalence of hypertension and diabetes among elderly residing in urban areas than their counterparts for each background characteristic. Furthermore, it was noted that the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes was higher among those aged 70+, females, divorced/separated/deserted, less educated, and non-poor.
Table 2 estimated the odds ratio for hypertension and diabetes among the elderly by their socio-demographic characteristics, separately for rural and urban areas. Results found that females residing in rural areas were 1.47 times more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension than their male counterparts residing in rural areas. Similarly, females residing in urban areas were 1.43 times more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension than their male counterparts residing in urban areas. Never-married elderly were less likely to be diagnosed with hypertension (OR = 0.45; C.I.= 0.21–0.95) and diabetes (OR = 0.20; C.I.= 0.06–0.65) than older people who were currently married in rural areas.
Education among the elderly depicts that those who attained higher education were more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension (OR = 2.09; C.I.= 1.50–2.91) and diabetes (OR = 3.16; C.I.= 2.01–4.96) than those who were uneducated in rural areas. Similarly, elderly with higher education were 2.12 times (OR = 2.12; C.I.= 1.40–3.21) more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension and 1.89 times (OR = 1.89; C.I.= 1.20–2.97) more likely to be diagnosed with diabetes in urban areas than those elderly who were uneducated. Non-poor older people were 1.54 times (OR = 1.54; C.I.= 1.37–1.73) more likely to be diagnosed with hypertension and diabetes (OR = 1.54; C.I.= 1.30–1.83) than poor people in rural areas, also, non-poor people were more likely to diagnosed with diabetes (OR = 1.53; C.I.= 1.23–1.89) than poor people in urban areas.
Table 1
Sociodemographic characteristics and prevalence of hypertension and diabetes among elderly in urban and rural areas
| | Rural | Urban | Total |
| | Hypertension | Diabetes | N | Hypertension | Diabetes | N | Hypertension | Diabetes | N |
Age group | 60–69 | 25.7 | 9.5 | 12,120 | 44.5 | 26.5 | 6,321 | 31.2 | 14.5 | 18,431 |
70+ | 28.6 | 9.1 | 8,569 | 50.8 | 25.7 | 4,372 | 35.0 | 13.9 | 12,950 |
Sex | Male | 23.1 | 9.6 | 10,021 | 41.0 | 28.0 | 4,724 | 28.0 | 14.6 | 14,811 |
Female | 30.5 | 9.2 | 10,667 | 51.9 | 24.7 | 5,969 | 37.1 | 13.9 | 16,570 |
Marital status | Currently married | 25.2 | 10.1 | 13,068 | 44.8 | 27.6 | 6,294 | 30.6 | 15.0 | 19,429 |
never married | 15.4 | 2.5 | 141 | 39.4 | 14.5 | 87 | 23.3 | 6.5 | 225 |
divorced/separated/deserted | 30.1 | 8.2 | 7,479 | 50.6 | 24.2 | 4,312 | 36.5 | 13.2 | 11,726 |
Education | No Education | 24.5 | 6.9 | 13,633 | 38.9 | 14.5 | 3,693 | 27.0 | 8.2 | 17,813 |
Below primary | 30.7 | 11.0 | 2,324 | 45.2 | 24.5 | 1,292 | 35.1 | 15.1 | 3,603 |
Primary | 30.7 | 13.9 | 2,065 | 51.5 | 29.7 | 1,527 | 38.4 | 19.8 | 3,525 |
Secondary | 33.0 | 16.7 | 2,341 | 53.7 | 36.7 | 3,093 | 43.6 | 27.0 | 5,161 |
Higher | 33.6 | 19.7 | 323 | 51.8 | 32.6 | 1,088 | 46.9 | 29.1 | 1,277 |
Religion | Hindu | 25.8 | 9.2 | 17,281 | 46.6 | 26.4 | 8,572 | 31.7 | 14.1 | 25,905 |
Muslim | 29.9 | 7.8 | 2,017 | 49.1 | 22.6 | 1,478 | 37.0 | 13.3 | 3,432 |
Others | 36.0 | 13.4 | 1,390 | 49.0 | 31.0 | 644 | 39.5 | 18.1 | 2,044 |
Wealth | Poor | 21.6 | 7.0 | 9,033 | 41.6 | 17.8 | 4,632 | 27.4 | 10.1 | 13,671 |
Non-poor | 31.1 | 11.2 | 11,655 | 51.3 | 32.5 | 6,061 | 37.0 | 17.5 | 17,710 |
Currently working | Yes | 18.1 | 6.4 | 7,156 | 34.4 | 19.5 | 2,169 | 21.2 | 8.8 | 9,502 |
No | 30.4 | 11.3 | 8,553 | 44.9 | 26.2 | 4,732 | 34.7 | 15.7 | 13,108 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | Yes | 22.4 | 7.4 | 9,358 | 40.6 | 19.3 | 2,894 | 26.0 | 9.7 | 12,535 |
No | 30.7 | 11.0 | 11,231 | 49.4 | 28.7 | 7,709 | 37.3 | 17.3 | 18,657 |
Ever consumed alcohol | Yes | 21.3 | 8.1 | 3,255 | 37.7 | 25.1 | 1,233 | 25.1 | 12.0 | 4,554 |
No | 28.0 | 9.6 | 17,338 | 48.2 | 26.3 | 9,372 | 34.1 | 14.6 | 26,644 |
Total | 26.9 | 9.4 | 20,589 | 47.0 | 26.1 | 10,603 | 32.8 | 14.2 | 31,198 |
Table 2
Estimates of odds ratio for hypertension and diabetes among elderly by their sociodemographic characterises in India
| | Rural | Urban |
| | Hypertension | Diabetes | Hypertension | Diabetes |
Age group | | Odds ratio | CI at 95% | Odds ratio | CI at 95% | Odds ratio | CI at 95% | Odds ratio | CI at 95% |
60–69® | | | | | | | | |
70+ | 1.02 | 0.90–1.15 | 0.91 | 0.76–1.08 | 1.19 | 0.96–1.46 | 0.93 | 0.73–1.17 |
Sex | Male® | | | | | | | | |
Female | 1.47*** | 1.27–1.69 | 1.15 | 0.91–1.43 | 1.43** | 1.09–1.88 | 0.60*** | 0.46–0.80 |
Marital status | Currently married® | | | | | | | |
never married | 0.45** | 0.21–0.95 | 0.20** | 0.06–0.65 | 0.88 | 0.44–1.77 | 0.59 | 0.27–1.25 |
divorced/separated/deserted | 1.10 | 0.96–1.25 | 0.89 | 0.72–1.08 | 0.95 | 0.73–1.22 | 0.72** | 0.55–0.94 |
Education | No Education® | | | | | | | |
Below primary | 1.79*** | 1.46–2.20 | 1.98*** | 1.52–2.59 | 1.31 | 0.96–1.79 | 1.60** | 1.13–2.27 |
Primary | 1.72*** | 1.43–2.08 | 2.50*** | 1.90–3.30 | 1.77*** | 1.26–2.48 | 2.34*** | 1.60–3.42 |
Secondary | 2.18*** | 1.84–2.59 | 3.04*** | 2.40–3.84 | 1.93*** | 1.43–2.61 | 2.05*** | 1.51–2.79 |
Higher | 2.09*** | 1.50–2.91 | 3.16*** | 2.01–4.96 | 2.12*** | 1.40–3.21 | 1.89** | 1.20–2.97 |
Religion | Hindu® | | | | | | | | |
Muslim | 1.21 | 0.99–1.47 | 0.85 | 0.64–1.12 | 1.27 | 0.98–1.62 | 1.06 | 0.79–1.41 |
Others | 1.40*** | 1.16–1.71 | 1.35** | 1.01–1.82 | 1.04 | 0.76–1.40 | 1.46** | 1.07–1.99 |
Wealth | Poor® | | | | | | | | |
Non-poor | 1.54*** | 1.37–1.73 | 1.54*** | 1.30–1.83 | 1.08 | 0.87–1.31 | 1.53*** | 1.23–1.89 |
Currently working | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 1.89*** | 1.67–2.14 | 2.02*** | 1.68–2.42 | 1.40*** | 1.10–1.77 | 1.52*** | 1.14–2.01 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 1.28*** | 1.13–1.44 | 1.45*** | 1.22–1.73 | 1.08 | 0.85–1.36 | 1.66*** | 1.32–2.09 |
Ever consumed alcohol | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 0.99 | 0.85–1.15 | 1.04 | 0.83–1.30 | 1.05 | 0.81–1.34 | 0.95 | 0.72–1.24 |
Table 3 examined treatment-seeking for hypertension and diabetes among the elderly by socio-demographic characteristics. A higher percentage of older females were seeking treatment for hypertension and diabetes than their male counterparts. Furthermore, the result found that as education increases, the percentage of older people seeking treatment for hypertension also increases. Nearly 73 percent of non-poor sought treatment for hypertension, whereas almost 80 percent of non-poor people sought treatment for hypertension. Similarly, around 77 percent of poor elderly sought treatment for diabetes, whereas around 84 percent of non-poor elderly sought treatment for diabetes.
Table 3
Treatment seeking for hypertension and diabetes among elderly by sociodemographic characterises
| | Treatment seeking for hypertension | N | Treatment seeking for diabetes | N |
Age group | 60–69 | 75.7 | 6,144 | 81.7 | 2,902 |
70+ | 79.5 | 4,847 | 81.4 | 1,956 |
Sex | Male | 76.0 | 4,420 | 78.1 | 2,349 |
Female | 78.4 | 6,571 | 84.9 | 2,509 |
Marital status | Currently married | 76.4 | 6,358 | 81.2 | 3,161 |
never married | 73.2 | 56 | 62.7 | 15 |
divorced/separated/deserted | 78.9 | 4,577 | 82.6 | 1,682 |
Education | No Education | 71.4 | 5,148 | 76.8 | 1,595 |
Below primary | 78.8 | 1,354 | 78.3 | 593 |
Primary | 81.1 | 1,446 | 86.8 | 757 |
Secondary | 84.9 | 2,403 | 86.7 | 1,510 |
Higher | 86.5 | 640 | 76.8 | 404 |
Religion | Hindu | 76.9 | 8,771 | 81.2 | 3,961 |
Muslim | 78.4 | 1,358 | 82.5 | 495 |
Others | 80.8 | 862 | 84.2 | 402 |
Wealth | Poor | 72.6 | 3,996 | 77.0 | 1,503 |
Non-poor | 80.2 | 6,995 | 83.7 | 3,355 |
Currently working | Yes | 67.4 | 2,192 | 72.7 | 938 |
No | 78.6 | 4,941 | 80.5 | 2,299 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | Yes | 71.7 | 3,482 | 76.6 | 1,323 |
No | 80.0 | 7,441 | 83.6 | 3,501 |
Ever consumed alcohol | Yes | 70.5 | 1,219 | 77.0 | 593 |
No | 78.2 | 9,710 | 82.4 | 4,236 |
Table 4
Logistic regression of treatment seeking for hypertension and diabetes among elderly by sociodemographic characterises
| | Rural | Urban |
| | Hypertension | Diabetes | Hypertension | Diabetes |
| | Odds ratio | CI at 95 % | Odds ratio | CI at 95 % | Odds ratio | CI at 95 % | Odds ratio | CI at 95 % |
Age group | 60–69® | | | | | | | | |
70+ | 1.19 | 0.96–1.47 | 1.01 | 0.70–1.43 | 0.8989432 | 0.62–1.29 | 0.87 | 0.54–1.37 |
Sex | Male® | | | | | | | | |
Female | 1.03 | 0.78–1.34 | 1.46 | 0.89–2.38 | 1.351669 | 0.82–2.20 | 1.38 | 0.75–2.53 |
Marital status | Currently married® | | | | | | | | |
never married | 0.27 | 0.07-1.00 | 0.05** | 0.00-0.50 | 2.244054 | 0.35–14.37 | 0.67 | 0.09–4.54 |
divorced/separated/deserted | 0.98 | 0.75–1.25 | 0.50*** | 0.32–0.77 | 0.8387334 | 0.52–1.35 | 1.14 | 0.65–1.98 |
Education | No Education® | | | | | | | | |
Below primary | 1.23 | 0.86–1.74 | 1.16 | 0.68–1.96 | 2.47*** | 1.37–4.47 | 1.00 | 0.49–2.01 |
Primary | 1.38 | 0.99–1.91 | 2.06** | 1.15–3.68 | 2.03** | 1.68–3.54 | 2.61** | 1.09–6.25 |
Secondary | 1.34 | 0.98–1.83 | 1.45 | 0.90–2.32 | 2.25*** | 1.31–3.88 | 1.77 | 0.91–3.43 |
Higher | 1.38 | 0.77–2.45 | 1.90 | 0.75–4.75 | 2.88*** | 1.40–5.90 | 0.81 | 0.32–2.05 |
Religion | Hindu® | | | | | | | | |
Muslim | 0.75 | 0.54–1.01 | 1.67 | 0.89–3.10 | 1.78** | 1.10–2.86 | 1.37 | 0.61–3.05 |
Others | 1.10 | 0.77–1.54 | 1.26 | 0.72–2.19 | 3.05*** | 1.63–5.72 | 1.29 | 0.62–2.66 |
Wealth | Poor® | | | | | | | | |
Non-poor | 1.52*** | 1.23–1.88 | 1.80*** | 1.27–2.56 | 1.74*** | 1.18–2.56 | 1.14 | 0.70–1.82 |
Currently working | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 1.68*** | 1.35–2.08 | 1.45** | 1.01–2.09 | 1.63** | 1.10–2.42 | 1.72 | 0.80–3.70 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 1.17*** | 0.94–1.47 | 1.34 | 0.92–1.94 | 1.450114 | 0.98–2.14 | 1.07 | 0.64–1.74 |
Ever consumed alcohol | Yes® | | | | | | | | |
No | 1.30** | 1.00-1.69 | 1.28 | 0.83–1.97 | 1.500037 | 0.95–2.36 | 0.76 | 0.43–1.32 |
Table 4 presents estimates for odds ratio examining the treatment-seeking for hypertension and diabetes among the elderly, separately for rural and urban areas. Results found that older people with higher education were 2.88 times (OR = 2.88; C.I.= 1.40–5.90) more likely to sought treatment for hypertension than uneducated older people in urban areas. As expected, results noticed a higher treatment seeking among non-poor elderly than their counterparts. It was noticed that non-poor older people were more likely to sought treatment for hypertension (OR = 1.52; C.I.= 1.23–1.88) and diabetes (OR = 1.45; C.I.= 1.01–2.09) than older people who were poor in rural areas. Similarly, non-poor older people in urban areas were 1.74 times (OR = 1.74; C.I.= 1.18–2.56) more likely to sought treatment for hypertension than their counterparts.
Table 5 depicts the urban-rural gap in the prevalence of hypertension among the elderly with the help of Fairlie’s decomposition analysis. The negative sign to the coefficient depicts that the particular variable contributes to narrowing the inequality gap of hypertension between rural-urban and vice-versa. Results found that age, sex, and wealth are the three variables that narrow the inequality in the rural-urban prevalence of hypertension. In simpler terms, it means that age, sex, and wealth are the variables that are reducing the gap in the prevalence of rural-urban hypertension among the elderly. Furthermore, the result noticed that education status alone accounts for more than four-fifths (88.62%) of the inequality in the prevalence of urban-rural hypertension. It means that the urban-rural differential in the prevalence of hypertension could be attributed to the educational status of the elderly. The current working status of the elderly is another factor that determines the inequality in the prevalence of hypertension between urban and rural areas.
Table 5
Decomposition results of the urban and rural gap in hypertension among elderly in India
| Coefficient | Standard error | P-value | Lower CI at 95% | Upper CI at 95% | Percent contribution |
Age | -0.0010233 | 0.000705 | 0.147 | -0.0024 | 0.000358 | -1.93 |
Sex | -0.0063831 | 0.002683 | 0.017 | -0.01164 | -0.00113 | -12.03 |
Marital Status | 0.0003314 | 0.000918 | 0.718 | -0.00147 | 0.002131 | 0.62 |
Education | 0.0470134 | 0.010132 | 0 | 0.027155 | 0.066872 | 88.62 |
Religion | 0.0005718 | 0.0005 | 0.252 | -0.00041 | 0.001551 | 1.08 |
Wealth | -0.0000606 | 0.000224 | 0.787 | -0.0005 | 0.000378 | -0.11 |
Currently working | 0.0106343 | 0.003804 | 0.005 | 0.003179 | 0.01809 | 20.05 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | 0.0018305 | 0.00391 | 0.64 | -0.00583 | 0.009495 | 3.45 |
Ever consumed alcohol | 0.0002218 | 0.000435 | 0.61 | -0.00063 | 0.001074 | 0.42 |
Total Explained = 0.05305 |
Table 6 depicts the urban-rural gap in the prevalence of diabetes among the elderly with the help of Fairlie’s decomposition analysis. Education status of the elderly accounts for more than half (52.02%) of the inequality in the rural-urban prevalence of diabetes. Other important factors that are contributing to the inequality in the rural-urban prevalence of diabetes are ever-used smokeless tobacco (19.54%), currently working status (15.58%), and sex (9.83%).
Table 6
Decomposition results of the urban and rural gap in diabetes among elderly in India
| Coefficient | Standard error | P-value | Lower CI at 95% | Upper CI at 95% | Percent contribution |
Age | 0.000193 | 0.000502 | 0.7 | -0.00079 | 0.001177 | 0.32 |
Sex | 0.005856 | 0.001917 | 0.002 | 0.002098 | 0.009614 | 9.83 |
Marital Status | 0.001204 | 0.000786 | 0.126 | -0.00034 | 0.002744 | 2.02 |
Education | 0.030991 | 0.007798 | 0 | 0.015707 | 0.046274 | 52.02 |
Religion | 0.000448 | 0.00031 | 0.149 | -0.00016 | 0.001055 | 0.75 |
Wealth | 0.00026 | 0.000675 | 0.7 | -0.00106 | 0.001584 | 0.44 |
Currently working | 0.009285 | 0.003141 | 0.003 | 0.003128 | 0.015441 | 15.58 |
Ever used smokeless tobacco | 0.011639 | 0.003046 | 0 | 0.005669 | 0.017608 | 19.54 |
Ever consumed alcohol | -0.00033 | 0.000666 | 0.62 | -0.00163 | 0.000975 | -0.55 |
Total Explained = 0.059576 |