Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1

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Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4890306/v1

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The Saryu River, a branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River), flows in the Kumaon Himalaya. This study utilized the physico-chemical parameters to assess water quality status and calculate the Water Quality Index (WQI), as well as Sentinel-2 satellite images of 10-meter resolution for 2022 and 2023 to analyse land use and land cover (LULC). The secondary water quality data was obtained from the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board. The results revealed that the total hardness, calcium, magnesium, faecal coliform, and total coliform were beyond the acceptable limits set by Bureau of Indian Standards/World Health Organization. Ions are primarily released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. In both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the concentration of the analysed cation and anion followed the sequence of calcium > magnesium > sodium > potassium, and sulphate > chloride > fluoride > nitrate-nitrogen, respectively. In both years, the WQI showed good water quality. The LULC shows the negative change detection of water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%), whereas trees (+ 1.05%), crops (+ 0.39%) and bare ground (+ 0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. According to the study's findings, the Saryu River water is safe for drinking. However, the presence of faecal coliform and total coliform highlighted the need for enhanced sanitary infrastructure and protocols to mitigate bacterial contamination from river water.

Kumaon Himalaya

Land Use/Land Cover

Saryu River

WQI

River water is a key element of freshwater resources, providing a vital role in preserving ecological equilibrium, promoting agricultural activities, and sustaining human beings. The essential prerequisites for fostering economic growth and maintaining environmental well-being are the purity and accessibility of river water. Hence, it is important to take control and prevention measures to address river pollution while also collecting accurate data for evaluation and administration. Water quality fluctuations mostly result from human interference and environmental phenomena within the watershed region (Huang et al. 2013; Gyimah et al. 2020). Magadum et al. (2017) and Nihalani and Meeruty (2021) have shown in multiple studies that industrial and urban wastewater, along with agricultural runoff, have heavily contaminated Indian rivers. The significant pollution levels have reduced several freshwater rivers to mere conduits for wastewater. Thus, these contaminated rivers provide substantial health hazards to the lot of persons who depend on them for clean water (Whitehead et al. 2009; Rautela et al. 2023). Human activities have had a profound influence on river systems, resulting in a significant decrease in the quality of water, a drop in accessibility of water, and a limited ability to sustain aquatic life. Non-natural causes such as rapid development, growing tourism, changing land use designs, and garbage discarding accelerate the decline of river water quality condition in the Himalayan region (Thakur et al. 2018).

Uttarakhand, a state in the Indian Himalayas, includes the Kumaon and Garhwal divisions. The rivers in the Kumaon area, including Saryu, Kosi, Ramganga, and others, come from the Himalayan range and flow across different terrains, providing water to fertile plains and supporting diverse forests. The Saryu River has a critical role as a water supply for the local people. It serves as a lifeline for drinking water, agriculture, and hydroelectric power generation, while also sustaining a diverse variety of flora and fauna species. The Saryu River, India is significant not only in terms of its physical existence, but also in terms of its profound impact on the cultural and spiritual aspects of the Kumaon people. The pollution, uncontrolled exploitation, and the consequences of climate change pose substantial challenges to the Saryu River. Industrial discharges, agricultural runoff, and untreated urban sewage introduce a variety of pollutants, including pesticides, heavy metals, and pathogenic microbes, contaminating the river. These contaminants deteriorate water quality, disturb aquatic ecosystem balance, and pose health risks to human populations who depend on the river for drinking water and other purposes. Deforestation and uncontrolled development worsen the decline in water quality by causing soil erosion and sedimentation.

The Kumaon region, known for its distinct geographical and cultural characteristics, is especially susceptible to these environmental difficulties. The status of the Saryu River serves as an indicator of the overall environmental state, including both natural phenomena and human actions in the surrounding region. Evaluating the quality condition of the Saryu River water is crucial to comprehending the magnitude of pollution and its consequences for nearby ecosystems and populations. Multiple studies have conducted assessments of water quality in different streams in Uttarakhand, as reported by (Bhutiani et al. 2016; Matta et al. 2020; Maurya et al. 2021; Sinha et al. 2022; Thakur et al. 2023; Mishra et al. 2024; Zafar and Kumari 2024). However, an extensive review of the current literature reveals that only a few numbers of studies (Seth et al. 2015, 2016; Aithani et al. 2021) have focused on the quality condition of the Saryu River water.

The goal of this study is to evaluate the current quality condition of the Saryu River water in the Kumaon Himalaya region. The aims of this study are: (1) to examine the physical and chemical characteristics of the water in the Saryu River and assess how they change throughout the seasons; (2) to determine the Water Quality Index (WQI) and establish the water quality rating (WQR); and (3) to evaluate the land use/land cover (LULC) within the 500-metre buffer zone of the Saryu River. People often use the WQI as a universal instrument to measure water quality and conclude its appropriateness for specific purposes (Macwan and Patel 2018). This extensive investigation seeks to deliver valuable insights into the environmental well-being of the Saryu River, with the goal of preserving this essential waterbody.

Study area

This study has been carried out on the Saryu River, also known as Sarju in the local Kumaoni language. This river is the largest branch of the Sharda River (downstream of the Mahakali River) and originate from Saryu Udgam near Sarmool. It flows from the western to the eastern Kumaon Himalaya, falling within the Ganga basin and Ghaghara sub-basin. Before joining the Sharda River at Pancheshwar, which is located at the India-Nepal border, the Saryu River passes through the cities of Kapkot, Bageshwar, and Seraghat. The Saryu River (Fig. 1) segment of this study is located in the Bageshwar district of Uttarakhand, India. The length of river is 58.3 kilometres with a 1200 square kilometres area of the watershed.

Data sources and preparation

The secondary water quality data for the monsoon (Ms) and post-monsoon (PMs) seasons of 2022 and 2023 were collected by the Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board(UKPCB 2022, 2023) and utilised to examine the seasonal fluctuation trends in quality condition of water and the Water Quality Index (WQI) of the Saryu River. We analysis the physico-chemical study at the "River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar" site. The collected water quality data were analysed according to the criteria established by the World Health Organization (WHO 2008, 2011), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS 2012), and the Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR 1975), to calculate the WQI. For the creation of the 2022 and 2023 LULC maps, Sentinel-2 satellite data with a 10-meter resolution was obtained from the Esri Land Cover website (ESRI 2021). Additionally, a Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with a 30-meter resolution was acquired from the United States Geological Survey(USGS 2014) Earth Explorer and the watershed shapefile was taken from Global Watershed(Heberger 2022) web application for the preparation of the study area map by using ArcGIS 10.8 software.

Calculation of WQI

The WQI is a measurement technique that consolidates several water quality physico-chemical parameters into one solo unique value, facilitating water quality interpretation and comparison (Akhtar et al. 2021). We calculated the WQI in this study using the “weighted arithmetic index” method (Brown et al. 1972; Sarkar and Majumder 2021). We calculated the WQI of the Saryu River for two years (2022 and 2023) by analysing sixteen physico-chemical parameters. Each of these parameters significantly contributes to the determination of the WQI, a crucial tool for assessing various water quality parameters. These parameters include pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), total dissolve solid (TDS), total hardness (TH), total alkalinity (TH), electric conductivity (EC), sulphate (SO₄⁻), chloride (Cl⁻), fluoride (F⁻), Nitrate-Nitrogen (NO₃⁻N), calcium (Ca₂⁺), magnesium (Mg₂⁺), sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), chemical oxygen demand (COD) and biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). The WQI was calculated using the following mathematical equations:

The following formula is used for obtaining the individual unit weight (Wi):

$$\:{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}=\frac{\text{K}}{{\text{S}}_{\text{v}}}$$

The standard allowable value (Sv) for the n^th water quality parameter is determined by the WHO, BIS, and ICMR. The provided equation is used to calculate the K (proportionality constant).

$$\:\text{K}=\frac{1}{\sum\:\left(\frac{1}{{\text{S}}_{\text{v}}}\right)}$$

The below equation is utilised to determine the sub-quality index (Qi):

$$\:{\text{Q}}_{\text{i}}=\left[\frac{\left({\text{F}}_{\text{v}}-{\text{I}}_{\text{v}}\right)}{\left({\text{s}}_{\text{v}}-{\text{v}}_{\text{i}}\right)}\right]\times\:100$$

where Iv is the ideal parameter value and Fn is the actual measured value of the nth parameter present [for all parameters, Iv = 0, with the exception of pH (Iv = 7) and DO (Iv = 14.6 mg/L)].

Hence, the WQI is:

$$\:\text{W}\text{Q}\text{I}=\frac{{\Sigma\:}{\text{Q}}_{\text{i}}*{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}}{{\Sigma\:}{\text{w}}_{\text{i}}}$$

Based on Table 1 classification of the WQI, the WQR for the Saryu River, India was established.

Table 1

Standard rating & grading of water quality as per WQI

(modified from Brown et al. 1972; Chatterjee & Raziuddin 2002).
WQI	Class	WQR	Grading
< 25	A	Excellent	I
25–50	B	Good	II
50–75	C	Poor	III
75–100	D	Very Poor	IV
> 100	E	Unsuitable	V

Analysis of physico-chemical parameters

The pH, which represents the levels of hydrogen ions (H⁺), is a crucial factor in evaluating quality condition of water. It has a vital role in identifying the solubility and accessibility of nutrients (Lahon and Sahariah 2022). Water's pH, which typically ranges from 0 to 14, measures its acidity or alkalinity. The pH values recorded in the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 were higher than those of 2023. Moreover, the pH values during the Ms season were consistently greater than those during the PMs season in both years (Table 2) (Fig. 2(a)). In relation to the research, the water is moderately alkaline (pH > 7) throughout the year. The elevated concentration of bicarbonate ions may correlate with the river's alkalinity (Khan et al. 2016). Increased pH levels in water are often linked to a rise in photosynthetic activities (Thapa 2022; Fentaw et al. 2024). This may have an influence on corrosion, mucosal membranes, aquatic life, and the taste of water (Rautela et al. 2023). The pH measurements of the Saryu River throughout the years 2022 and 2023 fall within the allowable limit of 6.5–8.5, as specified by the BIS, (2012).

The DO concentration in water reflects the total amount of oxygen available to support aquatic life and is influenced by both physical and biological activities in the water. Oxygen is introduced into the water via the process of aerial dispersion and as a result of photosynthetic action (Fentaw et al. 2024). Jain et al. (2022) have stressed that a decrease in DO is a common consequence of imbalances in aquatic life in water. The highest DO values recorded were 9 mg/L in the Ms and 9.4 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022. The measured levels of the 2023 season were less than 2022 values, as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2(b). An excessive amount of decomposing organic matter causes water pollution, as indicated by the DO readings. The decline is influenced by seasonal fluctuations and location-specific factors, such as water temperature (Wavde and Arjun 2010). Elevated water temperature reduces oxygen's ability to dissolve, affecting the metabolic processes, reproductive capabilities, and growth rates of bacteria that break down organic substances. Elevated temperatures intensify biological processes and accelerate the decomposition rate of organic substance, leading to an increased need for oxygen in water (Shah and Joshi 2017). Throughout the whole two-year period, the DO levels were constantly above the allowable threshold of 5 mg/L, as set by ICMR. When DO levels drop beneath 2 mg/L, the most of fish experience mortality (Fentaw et al. 2024). Elevating the DO levels may enhance the visual appeal of drinking water, resulting in a more pleasing aesthetic experience.

The TDS levels are a quantitative measure of all dissolved particles in a water sample, including organic and inorganic components. The residue left behind after evaporating the filtered sample calculates TDS (Mishra et al. 2021). The TDS concentrations during the Ms season in 2023 were measured at 156 mg/L, while during the PMs season they were measured at 174 mg/L. These values were higher than the TDS concentration in 2022, as shown in Table 2 and Fig. 2(c). As stated by Negi et al. (2022), a greater level of TDS in water is likely to result in an alkaline pH. The TDS amount was beneath the allowable range of 500 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (2012). It is important to emphasise that higher levels of TDS may have a substantial influence on many qualities of water, such as hardness, taste, and corrosion. As a result, this reduces the appropriateness of water for agriculture watering and drinking purposes (Seth et al. 2016).

A key contributing factor to water hardness is the presence of multivalent anions and cations, particularly Ca and Mg (Khan et al. 2016). Water hardness is a characteristic that allows us to determine soap's ability to lather. Hard water does not promote the formation of a satisfactory lather with soap, making it unsuitable for industrial use due to its tendency to cause significant boiler issues. The combined levels of Mg and Ca ions in water determines the TH. The highest values recorded were 220 mg/L in the Ms season of 2023 and 226 mg/L in the PMs season of 2022, as shown in Table 2. The TH levels in 2022 and 2023 are continuously overhead the allowable range of 200 mg/L specified by BIS, (2012) for all seasons except the Ms season (192 mg/L) in 2022 (Fig. 2(d)). Several factors, including the breakdown of rocks containing calcium carbonate, elevated temperatures, and the presence of magnesium and calcium salts from both natural and anthropogenic sources, influence the TH (Ruhakana 2012).

Alkalinity refers to the combined number of substances in water that increase the pH towards the alkaline side of neutrality. It also indicates the water's ability to tolerate fluctuations in pH, known as buffering capacity. The concentration of ions capable of neutralizing hydrogen ions determines the TA of water. The presence of weak acids and corresponding conjugate bases determines a solution's buffering capacity (Jain et al. 2022). Ca, Mg, bicarbonates, sodium carbonates, and hydroxides, often derived from salts, sediments, or dissolved rocks, influence (Kumar et al., 2012; Rautela et al., 2023). In both 2022 and 2023, the maximum recorded value of TA during the Ms season was 162 mg/L. However, 2023 saw the highest value of TA during the PMs season, reaching 178 mg/L (Table 2) (Fig. 2(e)). Elevated alkalinity concentration in water may result in a disagreeable flavour and, more significantly, pose a risk to irrigation. According to Sundar & Saseetharan (2008), it has the capacity to degrade soil quality and greatly diminish agricultural production. Throughout both years, the alkalinity level constantly remained within the permissible range of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (2012).

EC is a numerical representation of water's capacity to transmit an electric current. The level of dissolved minerals in water is directly proportional to its EC (Bora and Goswami 2017; Jain et al. 2022). As the concentration of ions increases, the EC value also rises. The EC acts as a valuable tool for assessing water quality. The EC values in 2023 were greater than in 2022, measuring at 240 µS/cm during the Ms season and 260 µS/cm during the PMs season. The EC values, measured in 2022 and 2023 (Table 2) (Fig. 2(f)), continuously remained below the ICMR specifications of 300 µS/cm, demonstrating that the water is pure and free from pollution. In both years, the EC is lower in the Ms season relative to the PMs season. This may be due to the higher river volume and lower temperature during the Ms, which is not favourable to the occurrence of species that might modify or enhance water conductivity (Iwar et al. 2021). The existence of pesticides, fertilisers, and biological waste from residential and industrial sources is known to result in higher levels of ionic concentrations, which in turn leads to a rise in conductivity (Fentaw et al. 2024).

The anionic dominance pattern observed in both seasons 2022 and 2023 was as follows: SO₄^- > Cl^- > F^- > NO₃^-N. The SO₄^- anion is the predominant species present in water and is an organic compound mostly formed from gypsum and other commonly occurring minerals. In 2022, the Ms and PMs seasons reported the highest concentrations of SO₄^- (Table 2), with levels of 61.26 mg/L and 58.16 mg/L, respectively (Fig. 3(a)). Over the years, the levels of SO₄^- at both locations remained consistently below the allowable threshold of 200 mg/L, as specified by BIS, (2012). The higher concentration levels of SO₄^- in the intake water have the potential to induce gastrointestinal issues in those who are in a healthy state (Heizer et al. 1997). The investigation found raised levels of SO₄^- concentrations in the water, suggesting the presence of rocks rich in sulphate, such as gypsum, in the riverbed (Das et al. 2022).

The Cl^- ion is the second most abundant anion species and plays a critical role in evaluating water quality. It occurs naturally in several forms, such as potassium chloride (KCl), sodium chloride (NaCl), and calcium chloride (CaCl2). This chemical's origins include leaching from rocks via weathering mechanisms, dissolution of salt deposits, intrusion of seawater, surface runoff from fields using inorganic fertilizers, irrigation discharge, and animal feed (Seth et al. 2016). Elevated levels of Cl^- ions in water lead to salinity, laxative properties, and potential health concerns such as hypertension, osteoporosis, nephrolithiasis, and asthma (McCarty 2004; Das et al. 2022). Table 2 reveals that the Ms (23 mg/L) and PMs (24 mg/L) seasons of 2023 witnessed the highest concentrations of Cl^- (Fig. 3(b)). Throughout a span of more than two years, including both seasons, the concentration of Cl^- remained constantly below the allowable range of 250 mg/L, as determined by BIS, (2012).

Table 2

Water quality parameters of Saryu River during 2022 & 2023 at D/S near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar, India (modified table using UPCB 2022, 2023).
River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2022
Season	pH	DO (mg/L)	TDS (mg/L)	TH (mg/L)	TA (mg/L)	EC (µs/cm)	SO₄ (mg/L)	Cl (mg/L)	F (mg/L)	NO₃-N (mg/L)	Ca (mg/L)	Mg (mg/L)	Na (mg/L)	K (mg/L)	COD (mg/L)	BOD (mg/L)	FC (MPN/100ml)	TC (MPN/100ml)
Monsoon	7.95	9.0	136	192	162	180	61.26	15	0.16	0.07	108	84	4.3	3.0	4	1.6	94	150
Post-Monsoon	7.51	9.4	135	226	154	210	58.16	21	0.33	0.16	124	102	10.8	3.7	6	1.8	84	170
River Saryu D/S Near Bilona Bridge, Bageshwar 2023
Season	pH	DO (mg/L)	TDS (mg/L)	TH (mg/L)	TA (mg/L)	EC (µs/cm)	SO₄ (mg/L)	Cl (mg/L)	F (mg/L)	NO₃-N (mg/L)	Ca (mg/L)	Mg (mg/L)	Na (mg/L)	K (mg/L)	COD (mg/L)	BOD (mg/L)	FC (MPN/100ml)	TC (MPN/100ml)
Monsoon	7.33	8.0	156	220	162	240	30.20	23	0.29	0.11	116	104	6.6	2.1	6	2.0	79	110
Post-Monsoon	7.25	8.2	174	210	178	260	28.93	24	0.30	0.11	114	96	3.5	2.4	5	1.4	79	140

The levels of F^- and NO₃^-N are insignificant across the study region. The Ms season in 2023 (0.29 mg/L) and the PMs season in 2022 (0.33 mg/L) recorded the greatest concentrations of F^- (Table 2) (Fig. 3(c)). In both years, the levels of F^- consistently stayed beneath the BIS, (2012) allowable limit of 1 mg/L, indicating that residential use of the water poses no immediate risk of bone and tooth fluorosis. Nevertheless, it is crucial to acknowledge that an overabundance of F might lead to the growth of skeletal and dental fluorosis (Khan et al. 2016). The elevated levels of NO₃^-N concentration in water indicate human-caused pollution resulting from fertilizer use. The surrounding areas, which employ intensive agricultural practices for growing various crops like vegetables and cereals, are the origin of this pollution. Meanwhile, contamination may also arise from using wastewater for irrigation. According to Wu et al. (2020), and Fentaw et al. (2024), the usage of wastewater for irrigation may also lead to contamination. Nitrogen occurs naturally in the environment and plays a crucial role as a vital nutrient for plants. However, the high quantity of NO₃^-N in drinking water poses a significant health risk (Singh and Hussian 2016). The highest NO₃^-N concentrations were observed during the Ms season in 2023 (0.11 mg/L) and during the PMs season in 2022 (0.16 mg/L), as shown in Fig. 3(d), and Table 2. The seasonal concentrations of NO₃^-N at both years constantly remained below the allowable range of 10 mg/L, specified by WHO, (2011), thereby verifying the safety of the water for consumption. An excessive quantity of NO₃ may result in methemoglobinemia, sometimes referred to as “blue baby” syndrome, in bottle-fed neonates (Knobeloch et al. 2000).

In both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, the volumetric levels of the analysed cation followed the sequence of Ca₂⁺ > Mg₂⁺ > Na⁺ > K⁺. Ca₂⁺ is often found in natural water resources, mostly because of the decomposition of minerals containing high levels of calcium, such as calcite, gypsum, and dolomite found in riverbeds, as well as the conversion of organic materials by bacteria (Seth et al. 2016; Matrood and Hussein 2021). The Ms season of 2023 (116 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (124 mg/L) recorded the highest Ca₂⁺ concentrations (Table 2) (Fig. 3(3)). For a period of more than two years, the levels of Ca₂⁺ constantly surpassed the allowable range of 75 mg/L specified by BIS, (2012). In all seasons, the amount of Ca₂⁺ was always higher than the amount of Mg₂⁺, this implies that the sedimentary basins include a large number of calcium-rich mineral/rocks, such as limestone, feldspar, calcite, and dolomite (Yadav et al. 2018). Mg₂⁺ is a frequently occurring element in natural water, often found in conjunction with Ca₂⁺. However, its concentration is frequently lower than that of Ca₂⁺. The concentrations of Mg₂⁺ (Table 2) were higher throughout the Ms period of 2023 (104 mg/L) and the PMs season of 2022 (102 mg/L). In fact, they continually exceed the allowable range of 30 mg/L established by BIS, (2012), which raises substantial worry about water quality in both 2022 and 2023 (Fig. 3(f)). The presence of calcite and dolomite-rich calcareous rocks, such as limestone, is a significant contributor to the raised levels of Mg in the water (Purushothaman et al. 2012). Other potential sources include industrial waste, home trash, and animal waste (Bodrud-Doza et al. 2019).

Na⁺ is a commonly found alkali element in natural water. The significant quantities of Na + are added to water bodies by sea spray, deposits of minerals, and human waste (Mishra et al. 2024). The Na⁺ ions exhibit a conservative behaviour by readily forming bonds with clay minerals via an ion exchange mechanism (Subramani and Saxena 1983). We observed the highest concentrations of Na⁺ (Table 2) during the Ms season in 2023 (6.6 mg/L) and PMs season in 2022 (10.8 mg/L), as given in Table 2 and Fig. 4(a). In both years, the Na⁺ levels continued beneath the acceptable range of 200 mg/L specified by the WHO, (2011). K⁺ is an important macronutrient for freshwater organisms because it plays a critical role in several metabolic processes (Mishra et al. 2024). In 2022, research measured the highest levels of K⁺ at 3 mg/L in the Ms season and 3.7 mg/L in the PMs season (Table 2). These levels were higher than those found in 2023 (Fig. 4(b)). Both years found that K⁺ levels were below the WHO's permissible range of 12 mg/L (WHO 2011). El Ghandour et al. (1983) stated that the salinity of water directly influences the volumetric levels of Na⁺ and K⁺. In this research area, K⁺ was the fourth most prevalent positively charged ion species.

The COD quantifies the quantity of oxygen needed for the chemical oxidation of organic molecules in water, namely chlorides (Jain et al. 2022; Mansour et al. 2024). The Ms season in 2023 had the greatest concentration of COD at 6 mg/L (Table 2), as did the PMs season in the same year (Fig. 4(c)). However, these levels continued beneath the maximum permitted range of 10 mg/L established by the WHO, (2008). The studies directly linked raised levels of COD to increased human activity in aquatic environments. Microorganisms use BOD as an experimental method to measure the quantity of dissolved oxygen they consume during the biological breakdown of organic substances in water. The industrial regions commonly observe higher COD values than BOD values (Jain et al. 2022; Mishra et al. 2024). The Ms season in 2023 saw the highest BOD values, reaching 2 mg/L. In the PMs period, 2022 recorded the highest BOD value, measuring 1.8 mg/L (Table 2) (Fig. 4(d)). The BOD values throughout 2022 and 2023 were consistently less than the allowable range of 5 mg/L set by ICMR. The increased BOD values suggest the presence of significant sources of organic pollution near the test sites (Bora and Goswami 2017; Verma et al. 2023). While BOD evaluates the amount of pollution that living organisms can decompose, COD considers both biodegradable and non-biodegradable contaminants (Khan et al. 2016).

Coliform bacteria in water serve as an indicator of human or animal faecal waste, which may lead to waterborne illnesses such as hepatitis, typhoid, and diarrhea (Sood et al. 2008). The Ms season (94 MPN/100 mL) and the period after the Ms (84 MPN/100 mL) in 2022 recorded the highest concentrations of faecal coliform (FC) (Table 2) (Fig. 4(e)). We found the highest concentrations of total coliform (TC) in the Ms of 2022 (150 MPN/100 mL) and in the PMs of 2022 (170 MPN/100 mL) (Table 2) (Fig. 4(f)). While the presence of TC bacteria in water does not consistently signify problems with quality of water, it can increase worries about potential pathogen contamination of the water source (Pal 2014). According to the BIS, (2012) criteria, a 100-mL water sample should not include detectable levels of both TC and FC. The data analysis reveals the contamination of river water with FC and TC in both the 2022 and 2023 seasons. High concentrations of coliform bacteria suggest contamination from a dirty source, inadequate treatment methods, post-treatment issues, or incorrect handling and disposal of solid waste.

WQI analysis

We used the “weighted arithmetic water quality index” technique to compute the WQI at the Saryu River during the Ms and PMs periods of 2022 and 2023. We use the standard values (Sv) and individual unit weight (Wi) values for each parameter (Table 3) to calculate the WQI. Table 4 displays the WQI and WQR of the Saryu River in both the Ms and PMs seasons of 2022 and 2023.

Table 3

Individual Unit weights (Wi) of the parameters used for WQI
Parameters	Nodal Agency	Standard (Sv)	Unit Weight (Wi)
pH	BIS 2012	8.5	0.063
DO	ICMR	5	0.106
TDS	BIS 2012	500	0.001
TH	BIS 2012	200	0.002
TA	BIS 2012	200	0.003
EC	ICMR	300	0.002
SO₄	BIS 2012	200	0.003
Cl	BIS 2012	250	0.002
F	BIS 2012	1	0.533
NO₃-N	WHO 2011	10	0.053
Cl	BIS 2012	75	0.007
Mg	BIS 2012	30	0.017
Na	WHO 2011	200	0.003
K	WHO 2011	12	0.044
COD	WHO 2008	10	0.053
BOD	ICMR	5	0.106
			ΣWn = 1

*All values are expressed in mg/L, except for pH and EC (µS/cm).

Table 4

The depiction of WQI and WQR of Saryu River, India during 2022-23
Year	Monsoon			Post-Monsoon
Year	WQI	WQR	Grade	WQI	WQR	Grade
2022	32.1	Good Water	II	42.1	Good Water	II
2023	40.5	Good Water	II	38.3	Good Water	II

In 2022, the WQI value rose from 32.10% during the Ms season to 42.10% during the PMs season. However, in 2023, the WQI declines from 40.5% during the Ms season to 38.3% during the PMs season (Fig. 5). This research assessed the uniformity of WQR in the Saryu River across 2022 and 2023. We found the water quality to be good in both the seasons of 2022 and 2023, meeting the permitted limit requirements set by BIS and WHO.

LULC analysis

The LULC data provide essential information on the spatial distribution and changes in land use within the river basin, which significantly impact the quality of water (Yao et al. 2023). This comprehensive approach not only improves our understanding of the existing state of the Saryu River, but also helps in formulating targeted strategies to safeguard and improve its water quality. The land cover of the Saryu River 500-metre buffer zone underwent changes during a span of one year, from 2022 to 2023, as seen in the processed map (Fig. 6). LULC may have a significant impact on river water quality by altering pollutant discharge and transit processes (Tu 2011). This research classified the LULC into six distinct categories: waterbody, trees (forest vegetation), crop (agriculture), built area, barren ground (including barren and scrub areas), and rangeland (representing grassland). Sentinel-2 ESRI LULC data from 2022 and 2023 revealed significant changes in the regions classified as trees, crops, and built areas, while water, barren ground, and rangeland showed minor modifications. The proportion of land covered by trees in the Saryu River watershed grew from 47.26% in 2022 to 48.31% in 2023, making it the most prominent characteristic of the region. The recent expansion of forested areas may result in increased levels of rainfall, thereby contributing to the rise of water pollutants. The waterbody area experienced a decrease, from 3.56% in 2022 to 3.25% in 2023 (Table 5). Climate may be responsible for this modest decrease.

Table 5

The LULC classes proportion change detection during 2022–2023 at 500 metre buffer zone of Saryu River, India
LULC Classes	2022		2023		Change (2022–2023)
LULC Classes	Area %	Area (Km²)	Area %	Area (Km²)	Area %	Area (Km²)
Water	3.56	1.92	3.25	1.75	-0.31	-0.17
Trees	47.26	25.46	48.31	26.02	+ 1.05	+ 0.56
Crops	2.09	1.13	2.48	1.34	+ 0.39	+ 0.21
Built Area	7.43	4.00	6.59	3.55	-0.84	-0.45
Bare Ground	3.35	1.80	4.04	2.18	+ 0.69	+ 0.38
Rangeland	36.31	19.56	35.33	19.03	-0.98	-0.53

In between 2022 and 2023, the built area dropped from 7.43–6.59%, while the crops increase from 2.09–2.48%. The extensive use of insecticides and fertilisers in farming potentially chiefs to elevated pollution levels in the nearby water bodies, highlighting the influence of human interference on these alterations. Several types of constructed areas, such as industrial regions, residential areas, urban sewage management, and discharge locations, may influence the water quality forecast model (Mello et al. 2018). Over this time frame, the amount of bare ground increased from 3.35–4.04%, while the area of rangeland decreased from 36.31–35.33%. Climate factors such as temperature, precipitation, and evaporation, along with environmental interactions and human activities, influence seasonal variations. The modifications in LULC have a crucial role in driving climate change, particularly in rapidly expanding urban areas. Land use change has an important effect on the physical and thermal attributes of the land surface, thereby affecting water quality. Therefore, the prolonged interaction between natural phenomena and human actions might have a substantial effect on the water quality of the region.

The research aimed to obtain the existing water quality condition of the Saryu River, India. The outcomes indicated that several physico-chemical parameters met the criteria established by BIS, (2012), ICMR, and WHO, (2011, 2008). However, in both seasons, the levels of TH, Ca₂⁺, and Mg₂⁺ consistently exceeded the permissible boundaries across the years, except for the TH concentration during the 2022 Ms season, which was beneath the acceptable limit (192 mg/L). The ions are mostly released in water via the process of carbonate weathering. The elevated levels of TH, Ca₂⁺, and Mg₂⁺ were associated with the prevailing abundance of limestone, dolomite, calcite, and feldspar in the local geological formation. The WQI consistently indicated good water quality conditions between 2022 and 2023. The LULC maps illustrate annual variations in land use and land cover categories, highlighting the effect of both human interference and environmental factors. The water (-0.31%), built area (-0.84%) and rangeland (-0.98%) show negative change detection, whereas trees (+ 1.88%), crops (+ 0.39%) and bare ground (+ 0.69%) show positive change detection from 2022 to 2023. The levels of FC and TC in the Saryu River exceeded the permissible limits, indicating bacterial contamination during both the Ms and PMs periods. In summary, the WQI study concluded that the Saryu River water is appropriate for consumption. However, the presence of FC and TC highlighted the need for improved hygienic facilities and processes to mitigate bacterial contamination in the river system. Effective management and regulatory procedures are essential for controlling the direct disposal of industrial and household trash into the river channel, with the aim of reducing pollution and maintaining water quality. Communities should strive to increase awareness and implement preventive measures to protect water from pollution. By implementing sustainable management strategies and rigorous data analytics, it is possible to mitigate the adverse impact of global climate change and urbanization on river ecosystems. This comprehensive approach will ensure the long-term preservation and restoration of river water quality for future generations. The present research aims to establish a correlation between the upcoming year's data on the quality of the Saryu River to identify patterns in the seasonal trends of water quality.

Acknowledgements The authors are thankful to their organization (UPES) for the unconditional support and guidance during writing of the paper along with that authors extend their appreciation to UKPCB, USGC Earth Explorer, ESRI Land Cover and Global Watershed for all the necessary data required for this research.

Author Contributions Madhuben Sharma: Writing – review & editing, Ajay Rautela: Visualization, Conceptualization, Supervision, Investigation, Validation, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Sameeksha Rawat: Methodology, Writing – original draft, Formal analysis. Ranjit Gurav: Writing – review & editing.

Funding There was no funding was obtained for this study.

Data Availability Statement All the relevant secondary water quality data are available from an online source of UKPCB Website https://ueppcb.uk.gov.in/pages/display/96-water-quality-data (Accessed on: 3 June 2024).

Ethical Approval The manuscript is conducted in the ethical manner advised by the journal.

Consent to Participate All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Consent to Publish The research is scientifically consented to be published.

Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

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Water Quality Assessment Using Water Quality Index and Land Use/Land Cover of Saryu River, Kumaon Himalaya, India

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Calculation of WQI

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Analysis of physico-chemical parameters

WQI analysis

LULC analysis

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