A study of the effects of high-intensity interval training and aerobic training on executive function in college students

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4904931/v1

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity cardio-training (MICT) on the executive function of non-athletic college students by combining event-related potentials (ERP) and physiological indexes (heart rate, oxygen saturation), with the aim of providing an objective basis and a practical guide for the college students to choose a more scientific and efficient exercise mode. The study was conducted with 34 non-physical education college students from Shenyang Institute of Physical Education, and the Flanker task, 2-back task and More-odd shifting task were used as the measurement tools. The executive function levels of college students were measured after moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and high-intensity interval training interventions. The results found that the two exercise modalities had a significant increase in the behavioral outcomes for the response time of the refreshing, inhibitory and switching functions, but the effect was not significant on the correctness of the intervention. Conclusion: Both moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and high-intensity interval training have positive effects on executive functions of college students.

Health sciences/Health care/Health services/Rehabilitation

Biological sciences/Psychology/Human behaviour

high-intensity interval training

ERP

aerobic exercise

executive function

Executive function plays a crucial role in daily life and work, and when executive function is impaired, it may have a negative impact on an individual's emotional state, cognitive ability, and social interactions.College students are at an important stage of physiological and psychological development, and their executive function levels are often influenced by many factors, such as lifestyle, diet, sleep quality, and physical activity, etc. Their executive function levels directly affect their academic performance. Understanding and optimizing executive functioning can help improve students' learning efficiency and performance.Physical exercise has a multifaceted effect on college students' executive function. First, moderate physical activity can improve blood circulation, enhance cardiopulmonary function, and improve endurance and muscle strength, thus improving executive function. Second, physical activity can also reduce stress and anxiety, improve mental health, and help improve attention and concentration, thus enhancing executive function. In addition, regular participation in physical activity can improve college students' self-esteem and self-confidence, foster teamwork, and enhance social skills, thereby promoting overall development and good levels of executive function.Numerous studies have confirmed that both short-term exercise and sustained long-term exercise can effectively promote the enhancement and development of cognitive ability. The effects of different exercise intensities on executive function vary.

According to the experimental design in this study, the G-power effect size was set at 0.25, the alpha value was 0.05, the power value was 0.8, and the sample size of subjects was calculated to be 34. 34 male college students who did not major in physical education were recruited as subjects in this study by means of a recruitment advertisement published online in Shenyang Sports Institute.These 34 non-physical fitness professional male subjects were randomly assigned to a high-intensity interval training group (HIIT group) and a moderate-intensity aerobic group (MIAT group), both of which consisted of 17 individuals.

This experiment used a 2 (group: HIIT group, MIAT group) × 3 (within group: 2-back, Flanker, more-odd-shifting) mixed experimental design, with data from the 2-back, Flanker, and more-odd-shifting tasks expressed in terms of reaction time and correct rate, to investigate the effects of different intensities of exercise interventions on the refreshing, inhibitory, and translational functions of non-physical male college students.The design of the present study was informed by the Kuiach team's HIIT protocol, which used a HIIT program consisting of a 2-minute warm-up, 24 minutes of high-intensity intermittent motor training, and 2 minutes of calm relaxation. During the high-intensity interval exercise training portion of the program, 8 rounds of cycling were scheduled, with each round consisting of a 2-minute high-intensity power bike ride and a 1-minute rest interval.The MIAT group utilized a 24-minute sustained moderate-intensity aerobic training session that consisted of a 2-minute warm-up, 24-minute uninterrupted bike ride, and a 2-minute stretching session.[2] Throughout the intervention, participants will wear a polar team heart rate kit to monitor their fitness and maintain a predetermined exercise intensity level. Based on the age of the subjects in this article, it is calculated that the heart rate of the moderate intensity group needs to be maintained in the range of 99-139 beats/min and that of the high intensity group needs to be maintained in the range of 140-158 beats/min.

This study drew on the N-Back paradigm used in Smith's study in selecting the refreshment tasks, of which 2-Back tasks were selected to be evaluated in this study based on the age and cognitive ability level of the subjects in this study. The test sequence of the suppression function test tasks in this experiment is 2-back task, Flanker task, and More-odd shifting task, which corresponds to the refreshing function, suppression function, and conversion function, respectively. The EEG experimental session of this study was conducted in room 237 of the EEG laboratory in the Science and Technology Building of Shenyang Sports Institute.The experimental apparatus used in this study was Neuroscan 64-lead ERP EEG recording system developed by Neuroscan, USA and 125cm*66*130(LXWXH) Power Training Bike from WATTBIKE LTD, UK and POLAR TeamPro heart rate telemetry system developed by Polar, Finland.

This study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Shenyang Sports Institute, which confirmed that the experimental method was implemented in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations, and ensured that all subjects participating in this study provided written informed consent. All subjects volunteered to participate in this study and were able to actively participate in the training and complete the entire testing process on their own.

1 Behavioral results

1.1 2-back

(1) Accuracy rate

There was no difference between the HIIT and MIAT groups in the pre-test of the experiment (0.798±0.180 in the HIIT group and 0.795±0.179 in the MIAT group);the percentage of correctness increased in both the HIIT and MIAT groups measured after the experiment, but the MIAT group (0.936 ± 0.106) had a greater increase in correctness than the HIIT group (0.831 ± 0.166).A 2 (group: HIIT and MIAT groups) * 2 (test phase: pre-test and post-test) two-factor repeated measures ANOVA was conducted with percentage correct as the dependent variable.The results showed a non significant main effect of group (F=1.031, p=0.318) and a significant main effect of pretest and posttest (F=9.361, p=0.005); the interaction was not significant (F=3.501, p=0.071).

(2) Reaction time

There was no difference between the HIIT and MIAT groups measured before the experiment (806.482 ± 174.885 in the HIIT group and 805.596 ± 234.586 in the MIAT group), and after the intervention the reaction time increased in the HIIT group and decreased in the MIAT group(809.596±234.586 in the HIIT group and 388.209±259.259 in the MIAT group).A 2 (group: HIIT and MIAT groups) * 2 (test phase: pre-test and post-test) two-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted with response time as the dependent variable.The results showed a significant main effect of group (F=10.014, p=0.004), a highly significant main effect of pretest and posttest (F=26.705, 0.000); and a highly significant interaction (F=17.166, p=0.000); there was no significant difference between the HIIT group and the MIAT group in terms of response time in the pre-test (p=0.966) , the difference between the HIIT group and the MIAT group at posttest reaction time was highly significant (P=0.000), as evidenced by a substantial decrease in reaction time in the MIAT group after the exercise intervention.

1.2 Flanker

(1) Accuracy rate

A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed with Accuracy rate as the dependent variable. The results showed a highly significant main effect of stimulus type (F=21.827,P=0.000), a highly significant main effect of group (F=106.159,P=0.000), and a highly significant main effect of pretest and posttest (F=39.478,P=0.000). The group*stimulus type, pre-posttest*stimulus type, and group*pre-posttest*stimulus type interactions were not significant. Due to the significant pre- and post-test*group interaction (F=9.265,P=0.008), further simple effects analyses were conducted, and the results showed that the difference between pre- and post-tests was significant for the MIAT group (F=23.764,P=0.000), and the difference between pre- and post-tests for the HIIT group was significant for the MIAT group (F=33.925,P=0.000), and there was a significant increase in post-tests from the mean value for both groups .

(2) Reaction time

A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed with Reaction time as the dependent variable. The results showed a highly significant main effect of stimulus type (F=25.742,P=0.000), a highly significant main effect of group (F=31.177,P=0.000), and a highly significant main effect of pre and posttest (F=9.196,P=0.008). The interaction between stimulus type* groups was significant (F=14.530,P=0.002), and further simple effect analysis showed that the difference between the two groups was highly significant (F=99.354,P=0.000) for consistent stimuli and not significant (F=0.180,P=0.677) for inconsistent stimuli, and from the means the MIAT group inconsistent stimuli response was significantly higher than the HIIT group. There was an interaction between group* pre and post-tests (F=6.174,P=0.025), which was analyzed by simple effect analysis, and the results showed that the difference between pre and post-tests was not significant in the MIAT group (F=0.833,P=0.376), and the difference between pre and post-tests was significant in the HIIT group (F=19.107,P=0.001), and in terms of the mean value, post-tests were lower than pre-tests when responding in the HIIT group . Due to the interaction between the three-factor interaction term of stimulus type, group, and pre and post-test (F=11.464,P=0.004) a simple effect analysis was conducted as follows: pre and post-test variability was significant for consistent stimuli in the HIIT group (F=7.539,P=0.015), there was no significant difference between pre and post-tests for consistent stimuli in the MIAT group (F=3.498,P= 0.081), there was no significant difference between pre- and post-tests of inconsistent stimuli in the MIAT group (F=0.006,P=0.940), and there was a significant difference between pre- and post-tests of inconsistent stimuli in the HIIT group (F=14.091,P=0.002), and in terms of the mean values, the response time of post-tests of consistent stimuli was lower than that of the pre-tests in the HIIT group, and post-tests of inconsistent stimuli were significantly lower than those of the pre-tests in the HIIT group.

1.3 More-odd shift

(1) Accuracy rate

A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed with Accuracy rate as the dependent variable. The results showed a nonsignificant main effect of stimulus type, a significant main effect of group (F=68.171,P=0.000), and a significant main effect of pretest and posttest (F=7.557,P=0.015). The stimulus type*group, stimulus type*posttest, group*posttest, and stimulus type*group*posttest interactions were not significant.

(2)Reaction time

A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA was performed with Reaction time as the dependent variable. The results showed a highly significant main effect of group (F=71.941,P=0.000), a highly significant main effect of stimulus type (F=75.582,P=0.000), and a highly significant main effect of pre and posttest (F=35.294,P=0.000). The group*posttest and stimulus type*group*posttest interactions were not significant. There was an interaction between stimulus type and group (F=9.500,P=0.008) Further simple effects were analyzed, and the results showed that the difference between the two groups was significant at conversion (F=133.435,P=0.000), and the difference between the two groups was significant at non-conversion (F=9.547,P=0.007), with a significant increase in both groups in terms of the mean value. The stimulus type* pre-posttest interaction was significant (F=39.408,P=0.000) Further simple effects analysis showed a significant difference between the pre-posttests at conversion (F=0.216,P=0.649) and a non-significant difference between the pre-posttests at non-conversion (F=124.177,P=0.000), with a significant decrease in the post-tests at the conversion type from the mean, and a significant decrease in the post-tests at the non-conversion type did not differ significantly.

2 ERP results

Table 1. 2-back,Flaker,More-odd shift ERP Characterization Results.

Types of Execution Functions	Within-subjects effects test	F								P
		N1		P2		N2		P3		N1		P2		N2		P3
		N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	P2 peak latency	P2 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude	N1 peak latency	N1 peak amplitude
2-back	Groups	1.848	1.672	3.385	7.335	0.811	2.372	26.753	125.944	0.207	0.228	0.099	0.024	0.391	0.158	0.001	0.000**
	Pre and Post Test	1.507	2.144	0.118	0.041	0.938	4.196	59.7	99.982	0.251	0.177	0.739	0.844	0.358	0.071	0.000**	0.000**
	Electrode point	0.098	60.537	0.095	18.426	2.309	21.546	1.507	2.822	0.92	0.000**	0.819	0.001	0.152	0.001	0.251	0.094
	Group*Pre and Post Measurement	0.261	3.171	0.473	9.464	0.114	2.065	154.983	129.332	0.622	0.109	0.509	0.013	0.743	0.185	0.000**	0.000**
	Group*Electrode point	1.285	0.556	2.021	2.852	1.692	0.55	4.362	9.227	0.301	0.502	0.179	0.114	0.219	0.479	0.02	0.002
	Pre/Post* Electrode Points	2.558	0.511	0.526	0.339	1.692	1.776	1.467	0.912	0.091	0.565	0.548	0.599	0.219	0.215	0.254	0.426
	GroupBefore and after measurementElectrode point	1.825	0.038	0.105	2.852	0.564	0.056	9.036	23.669	0.191	0.962	0.846	0.114	0.563	0.824	0.001	0.000**
Flanker	Groups	2.208	0.05	1.472	6.813	0.622	1.746	0.202	1.203	0.172	0.828	0.256	0.028	0.451	0.219	0.664	0.301
	Pre and Post Test	48.713	1.704	8.488	0.324	3.601	1.442	20.757	1.923	0.000**	0.224	0.017	0.583	0.09	0.261	0.001	0.199
	Electrode point	0.286	9.012	1.653	0.049	2.043	73.703	0.933	13.411	0.659	0.008	0.229	0.868	0.182	0.000**	0.377	0.003
	Group*Pre and Post Measurement	0.159	1.481	7.481	0.074	6.812	0.225	0.071	0.534	0.699	0.255	0.023	0.791	0.028	0.647	0.796	0.484
	Group*Electrode point	0.489	0.862	1.082	0.193	0.758	13.165	2.536	1.37	0.552	0.395	0.341	0.696	0.45	0.003	0.123	0.277
	Pre/Post* Electrode Points	0.964	0.426	0.407	0.193	2.294	0.207	0.71	0.203	0.362	0.575	0.632	0.676	0.137	0.694	0.444	0.727
	GroupBefore and after measurementElectrode point	2.288	0.093	0.792	0.125	0.405	0.878	0.418	0.027	0.157	0.793	0.428	0.746	0.621	0.39	0.623	0.888
More-odd shift	Groups	0.187	0.049	4.78	2.345	1.163	0.073	41.625	26.236	0.676	0.83	0.057	0.16	0.309	0.793	0.000**	0.001
	Pre and Post Test	0.398	0.33	3.551	2.416	0.17	5.735	13.215	120.328	0.544	0.58	0.092	0.155	0.69	0.04	0.005	0.000**
	Electrode point	0.471	8.63	3.695	1.245	1.654	11.819	4.739	3.252	0.606	0.014	0.065	0.298	0.216	0.007	0.021	0.044
	Group*Pre and Post Measurement	0.005	1.421	0.013	8.164	0.998	0.698	22.463	115.586	0.944	0.264	0.912	0.019	0.344	0.425	0.001*	0.000**
	Group*Electrode point	5.734	1.204	7.952	0.512	3.491	0.78	3.27	4.795	0.013	0.304	0.001	0.502	0.065	0.417	0.065	0.012
	Pre/Post* Electrode Points	1.103	0.292	0.291	0.979	1.6	0.189	0.203	3.303	0.332	0.615	0.729	0.352	0.232	0.679	0.766	0.041
	GroupBefore and after measurementElectrode point	0.246	0.081	0.173	0.737	0.202	1.074	0.476	13.687	0.801	0.808	0.866	0.421	0.77	0.331	0.562	0.000**

The results of Experiment 1 showed that the 2-back correct rate increased in both groups after the exercise intervention, proving the effectiveness of the interval training group and aerobic training intervention, in which the correct rate of the MIAT group was higher than that of the HIIT group; after the exercise intervention in both groups, the reaction time of the HIIT group increased compared to the pre-test, in which the reaction time of the MIAT group was reduced dramatically, proving that the MIAT group was more effective in enhancing the reaction speed of subjects, which is in combination with the exercise intervention program of this study, it was analyzed that it might be due to the poor exercise foundation of the subjects in this study, and high-intensity interval training was slightly more difficult for the subjects in this study, which was in line with the inverted U theory of psychology. The data in Table 1 can be shown that both the MIAT and HIIT groups showed an increase in P2 waveform amplitude after the exercise intervention, but the MIAT effect was more pronounced, suggesting that the participants enhanced cognitive control over the current stimulus in order to maintain the accuracy of their working memory, whereas subjects in the MIAT group, after moderate-intensity aerobic training working memory improvement was more significant.Both MIAT and HIIT groups of non-athletic male college students successfully triggered the production of the P3 waveform. After the appropriate interventions, the MIAT group showed significantly less latency of the P3 waveform after the exercise intervention than the pre-test, indicating faster reaction times, while the HIIT group showed greater P3 latency after the exercise intervention than the pre-test, indicating that the subjects' reaction times instead decreased after the high-intensity cycling intervals intervention. In a study of elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment, Pai et al. found that either rapid, fast aerobic or resistance training resulted in a significant elevation of P3 wave peaks in the brains of mice, suggesting that both could improve brain function in elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment.Both MIAT and HIIT induced more pronounced P3 peaks at different training loads, as evidenced by the fact that the HIIT group induced a slightly lower wave amplitude than the MIAT group, than suggesting that the learning ability of MIAT was affected by the greater load, which may be related to the lower intensity of its movements, and therefore require more cognitive resources.In the present study, ERP waveform data from participants performing the 2-N-back task revealed that both the MIAT and HIIT groups showed an increase in P2 waveform amplitude after the exercise intervention, but the MIAT effect was more pronounced, suggesting that the participants enhanced cognitive control over the current stimulus in order to maintain the accuracy of their working memory, whereas subjects in the MIAT group,after moderate-intensity aerobic training working memory improvements were more significant.Both the MIAT and HIIT groups of non-physical education male college students were successful in triggering the production of the P3 waveform. After the respective interventions, the latency of the P3 waveform was significantly less than the pre-test in both the MIAT group after the exercise intervention, showing faster reaction times, whereas the P3 latency was greater than the pre-test in the HIIT group after the exercise intervention, suggesting that the reaction times of the subjects instead declined after the high-intensity cycling interval intervention.In a study of elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment, Pai et al. found that either rapid, fast aerobic or resistance training resulted in a significant elevation of P3 wave peaks in the brains of mice, suggesting that both could improve brain function in elderly patients with mild cognitive impairment.Under different training loads, both MIAT and HIIT induced more pronounced P3 peaks, as evidenced by the HIIT group inducing slightly lower wave amplitudes than the MIAT group, than suggesting that the learning ability of MIAT was affected by the greater load, which may be related to the lower intensity of its movements, thus requiring more cognitive resources. In the MIAT group, participants demonstrated greater efficiency in mobilizing and allocating cognitive resources and showed more agility and adaptability in processing information, which provided a solid foundation for them to evaluate information quickly and accurately and to make reactive decisions. Similar to the results of the Li study, after the 60%-70% maximal heart rate exercise intervention, there was a significant time main effect, with a decrease in reaction time to complete the 2-back task compared to the pre-intervention period, and an increase in the rate of correctness on the 2-back task after the intervention[3].

The results of Experiment 2 showed that after the exercise intervention, both groups of subjects demonstrated different degrees of faster reaction time and increased correctness. there was a small increase in correctness on the Flanker task in both groups. The reaction times of the two groups of subjects were different, as shown by the fact that the reaction time after the intervention was higher than the pre-test in the HIIT group and lower than the pre-test in the MIAT group.This conclusion is consistent with the findings of Chen Aiguo [4]et al. and also satisfies the study of Netz et al. [5]With the elderly population as the research subject, this study utilized the Alternate Uses task (the Alternate Uses task) to assess cognitive switching function and found that short-term aerobic exercise of varying intensities enhanced switching ability in the elderly. In terms of reaction time, both the HIIT group and the MIAT group showed a significant main effect, i.e., the measured reaction time after the experiment was significantly reduced compared to that before the experiment. The more-odd-shifting interaction between the two groups after the exercise intervention was highly significant, which confirms the validity of the paradigm used in this study. According to the arousal level hypothesis proposed by Kamijo et al. acute exercise of varying intensities may enhance transformational functioning in non-physical education college students by increasing their arousal level.Thus, acute exercise can potentially have a positive effect on cognitive control processes by influencing physiological and neural mechanisms, especially when individuals are required to switch between tasks [6].According to behavioral tests, both moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and high-intensity interval exercise help to reduce an individual's conflicting perceptions of novel stimuli.Comparison of subjects' ERP waveform data during the Flanker task before and after exercise revealed that subjects induced significant N2 and P2 components. the latency of N2 and the latency of P2 were more significant, with a decreasing trend in the latency of both groups, which was manifested by the MIAT group's latency being substantially lower than that of the HIIT group. It can be hypothesized that after moderate-intensity aerobic cycling, the brains of the subjects in the MIAT group became more efficient in processing information, were able to recognize and resolve conflicts faster, and were able to focus more highly on the task at hand.In her dissertation, Shi Hui investigated the changes in executive function and the time-course effects in people with different levels of cardiorespiratory endurance after high-intensity interval exercise, and also tested inhibitory control function through the Flanker task, and found that the reaction time of the high cardiorespiratory endurance group was significantly higher than that of the low cardiorespiratory endurance group, and several other studies have shown that the subjects' inhibitory control function is significantly affected only after a high-intensity intervention [7]. This is different from the results of the present study, and the analysis may be due to the fact that the subjects in this paper had little exercise experience, and the high-intensity interval training exceeded their optimal arousal level, whereas the intensity of the exercise intervention in the MICT group was able to enable the subjects to reach their optimal arousal level, thus leading to a lower degree of enhancement of inhibitory control function in the subjects in the HIIT group compared to that in the MICT group.

The results of Experiment 3 showed that participants receiving the two training modalities produced significant differences in reaction time as well as correctness on the procedural task, as evidenced by an increase in correctness and a decrease in reaction time in both groups after the intervention. The data in Table 1 can be shown that significant P2 and P3 components were induced in the subjects after the exercise intervention, with more pronounced P2 waveform amplitude, and significant latency and waveform amplitude of P3. Meanwhile, both groups of subjects showed an upward trend in P2 wave amplitude after receiving the exercise intervention, with a greater increase in the MIAT group than in the HIIT group, indicating that subjects in the MIAT group were able to focus more on the more-odd-shifting task after a moderate-intensity aerobic cycling exercise intervention. The latency of the P3 component after exercise showed a decreasing trend in both groups, with a non-significant difference in the HIIT group, and a greater decrease in the MIAT group than in the HIIT group, indicating that the MIAT group was able to concentrate more on the more-odd-shifting task after the exercise intervention, which improved the efficiency of the subjects in processing the information. The amplitude of the P3 component of the P3 component showed an upward trend in both groups of subjects after the exercise, with a non-significant difference in the HIIT group and a greater increase in the MIAT group.The results of the study showed that when the difficulty of the task increased, the cognitive resources used by the subjects were consistent with the cognitive resources used by the subjects. The moderate aerobic group was able to maintain a faster processing speed, while remaining highly correct. In addition, the moderate aerobic training group showed a significant increase in both reaction time and correctness across task types, but using the same cognitive resources. These findings suggest that although the change in task type caused some interference in the performance of both groups of participants in performing the switching task, the moderate-intensity exercise group was able to perform the switching task more efficiently with the same input of cognitive resources. This suggests that moderate-intensity exercise training enhances the ERP profile of non-physical education male college students in terms of switching ability, i.e., it enhances their ability to switch flexibly between different rules while improving the speed of signal processing. The results of this experiment are the same as previous results, which suggest that appropriate aerobic exercise can promote the conversion function of the brain, and cognitive flexibility plays an enhancement role.[8]

Different exercise interventions were enough to shorten the reaction time and increase the correctness rate of Flanker, 2-back, and more-odd-shifting tasks for non-physical education male college students; different exercise interventions had different effects on the refreshing, inhibitory, and translational functions of non-physical education male college students, with moderate-intensity cycling aerobics exercise showing the best performance and the best effect of the interventions .

Moderate-intensity aerobic training, and high-intensity interval exercise enhanced the ability to refresh memory representations and the total amount of attentional resources during a working memory task for non-physical education male college students.

Both moderate-intensity aerobic and high-intensity interval exercise improved executive function in non-physical education college students, and moderate-intensity interval exercise may be a safer and easier alternative form of exercise for individuals with lower fitness levels.

Data availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this paper.

Author contributions

LiYing Xue made significant contributions to the writing of the article and analysis of the data. Ming Wei and WanFang Xue made significant contributions to article conceptualization and manuscript review.Benxu Zou participated in manuscript review and assisted LiYing Xue in her research project by providing support for research planning and activities.

Competing interests

All authors declare no conflict of interest.

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No competing interests reported.

A study of the effects of high-intensity interval training and aerobic training on executive function in college students

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Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Results

Discussion

Conclusions

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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