Basement structural control in urban fracturing, a case study in Zacatecas, Mexico

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4915450/v1

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Basement structural control in urban fracturing, a case study in Zacatecas, Mexico

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4915450/v1

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In this groundbreaking research we present a novel methodology for systematic fracture measurement in streets, sidewalks and walls. This approach, which incorporates both urban fracture data and geologic fault data, is a significant step forward in our understanding of the relationship between urban fractures and geologic faults. By calculating the paleostress axis, we were able to determine if fractures follow the urban area street array or if geologic faults control fracturing, leading to parallel data. The result reveals reverse faults dispersed in the NW and SE quadrants, while the normal faults have a clear tendency towards the NW and, to a lesser extent, to the NE, with the extension axis directed to the NE-SW. The orientation of the normal faults is parallel to that observed in the fractures in sidewalks, streets, and walls, as well as to the distribution of slopes and to that of the basement deformation. Moreover, the main drainage is also directed towards the WNW-ESE, it is, fault controlled. The parallelism between the urban fracturing and basement deformation suggests a close relationship between them, despite the construction process or materials quality.

Basement deformation

urban fractures

Zacatecas

normal faults

drainage

Land subsidence associated with the overexploitation of aquifers is a process that costs millions of dollars annually for the repair of affected infrastructure and buildings (Viets et al. 1979; Herrera-García et al. 2021; Kok and Costa 2021). This phenomenon is well known, and since the 1960s, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has organized symposiums and working groups to study and address this problem; the current one is the "International Land Subsidence Initiative" (https://www.landsubsidence-unesco.org/). Therefore, knowing, understanding, and addressing the problem is necessary since it is a hazard that can potentially generate risk areas. Locally, state governments systematically monitor subsidence, such as the State Government of Aguascalientes (2024) or the Arizona Geological Survey (2024). Land subsidence's potential risks and dangers emphasize the urgency and importance of our research and understanding of this phenomenon.

The effects of subsidence on the surface are the formation of cracks and scour, also affecting agricultural land, industrial, infrastructure, and urban areas (Herrera-García et al. 2021). Cracks form in valleys where overexploitation of the aquifer generates a mass deficit that favors the compaction of the sedimentary fill, so the cracks track follows the trend of basement faults (Burbey 2002; Gutiérrez-Yurrita 2010; Galloway and Burbey 2011; Hernández-Marín et al. 2017; Figueroa-Miranda et al. 2018; Carreón-Freyre et al. 2019). Mitigation impacts and control of cracks have been studied for several decades (e.g. Poland 1984; Galloway et al. 1999; Galloway et al. 2008). One of the main problems is the difficulty in filling them, and although techniques are also applied to mitigate the process, such as artificial water recharge, it continues (Galloway and Burbey 2011).

Subsidence monitoring is often carried out with techniques ranging from the use of extensometers, geopositioners, precision topography, satellite images, InSAR, and Lidar, among others (Castellazzi et al. 2016; Figueroa-Miranda et al. 2018; Cigna and Tapete 2021). In this way, subsidence and fracturing are continuously monitored in sites with agricultural and industrial activities and urban areas. However, where subsidence is slow, its effects are barely perceptible.

Subsidence and crack formations can generate risk areas in the short, medium, and long term, affecting the population and their assets and causing socioeconomic and environmental losses (Herrera-García et al. 2021).

In population seats, the lack of interest may be because if a fracture does not require repair, it may be ignored; furthermore, due to their small dimensions of a few meters, they are not considered possible precursors of cracks or subsidence. Commonly, their origin is associated with the settlement of the land, the natural configuration of urbanization, the passage of vehicles, and low-quality materials and construction processes.

Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2015) proposed the hypothesis that basement faulting also influences the formation and distribution of fractures in sidewalks, streets, and walls. The tendency of fracturing that forms in urban infrastructure is subparallel to the main basement faults (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2015, 2023; Barrios del Río 2018; Muro-Ortega et al. 2022; Sánchez-Pérez et al. 2022).

In the Las Pilas community, Zacatecas, located on the western edge of the Sierra de Zacatecas and adjacent to the overexploited Calera Aquifer, fractures in sidewalks, walls and streets were systematically measured to define their preferred orientation and its relationship with the deformation of the basement according to the methodology proposed by Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2015) and Muro-Ortega et al. (2022). No subsidence monitoring technique has yet been applied in the Las Pilas community because no subsidence has been observed.

The community of Las Pilas is in the western part of the Sierra de Zacatecas (Fig. 1) in the morphogenetic region "Erosion and pluvial accumulation" (Lugo-Hubp 1990). The principal geomorphic agent in this region is the wind, while the water erosion effect is light to moderate (Peltier 1950; Fookes et al. 1971). The Arroyo Las Pilas is the northern limit of the community (Fig. 2); it is oriented NW-SE with almost perpendicular tributaries. The water erosion is low mainly because most streams are intermittent and to a small extent (Lugo-Hubp 1990). Slopes between 6° and 15° are adjacent to the main channel and where most tributaries are formed. In the community's central and southern parts, the slopes are less than 6° and appear to be aligned with a normal fault.

Figure 1 shows the structures of the two regional deformation systems, the San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System (SLTFS), from the Paleocene-Eocene-Early to the Early Miocene and, possibly with activity until the Quaternary, formed oriented structures WNW-ESE (Nieto-Samaniego et al. 2005 and 2023; Loza-Aguirre et al. 2008). The second is associated with the formation, from the Early Oligocene to the recent, of the Basin and Range tectonic province (Aranda-Gómez et al. 2000). The faulting of the province has a preferred trend that varies from NNW to NNE (Aranda-Gómez et al. 2000). The Sierra de Zacatecas is part of a horst, and the study area is within the western limit (Fig. 1).

The stratigraphic sequence of the Sierra de Zacatecas has been described in detail in several papers (Pérez-Martínez 1961; Ponce and Clark 1988; Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2003, 2009 and 2016; Ortega-Flores et al. 2016). In the study area, outcrops are part of the Las Pilas Complex, which is divided according to rock type and fabric (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009). Figure 3 shows the lithological units around the Las Pilas community.

The rocks are part of the Las Pilas Complex, formed by lava flows of composition that vary from basalt to andesite and dioritic laccoliths (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009). Although the dominant structure is massive, this does not mean that other types, such as pillowed or deformed ones, are present in a smaller proportion. Where the dominant structure is deformed, it implies the development of foliation or intense fracturing; in the first one, it does not have a defined trend (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009). Finally, a part of the dioritic laccolith is at the NE corner of the study area (Fig. 3).

The Las Pilas Complex shows at least two compressive and one extensional deformation events (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009). The reverse faulting has a complex deformation pattern whose orientation varies from NW to NE (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009; Ortega-Flores et al. 2016). At the end of the Mexican Orogen (Fitz-Díaz et al. 2018), the rearrangement of stresses formed a WNW-ESE San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System (Nieto-Samaniego et al. 2005; Loza-Aguirre et al. 2008). This System cuts the Sierra de Zacatecas in the central and northern parts. The deformation since the Early Oligocene is extensional and formed the Basin and Range tectonic province (Aranda-Gómez et al. 2000). In this province is the Sierra de Zacatecas, a horst whose normal faults are oriented N-S with local changes towards the NNE and NNW (Figs. 1 and 3). In the basins, the basement normal faults have a domino arrangement (Aranda-Gómez et al. 2000; Hernández-Marín et al. 2017; Carreón-Freyre et al. 2019).

The fractures were measured with a Brunton-type compass, a 5-meter flexometer, and Garmin GPS model eTrex 10 with a position of error ± 3 m. The base map was taken from a Google Earth image at a scale of 1:20,000. The coordinate system was UTM, zone 13 N, datum WGS84. The types of fractures and measurements are shown in Fig. 4 (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2015; Barrios-del Río 2018; Muro-Ortega et al. 2022). The data measured in each structure is shown in Table 1; of these, only fractures in streets and sidewalks were analyzed due to their abundance. We do not consider measures of fractures due to tree roots, maintenance holes, drainage systems, those perpendicular to the slope of the land. Fractures identified as caused by construction processes on facades, such as adjacent property edges and door and window frames, were also not measured.

Table 1

Data measured in each type of structure.
Structure	Number of data
Street fractures	393
Sidewalk fractures	36
Wall fractures	5
Sinking	23

We created a digital elevation model for slope using the topography map of Zacatecas (F13B58) at a scale of 1:50,000 (INEGI 2019), with level curves spaced every 10 m and calculations with a 10 m grid resolution. The slopes were classified using the official standard to evaluate geomorphological processes (SEDATU 2016).

The dissection density and relief energy models were computed as proposed by Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2012). These models were made by dividing the 1:50,000 scale topographic maps into a grid of 1 km (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2012). The measurements were carried out using the methodology proposed by Lugo-Hubp (1988).

The fault data was meticulously measured in mesostructures within the lava spills of the Las Pilas Complex. We use the criteria of the “Right Hand Rule,” which indicates that if the plane dips toward the observer, the pinnula will point to the right.

The displacement direction was defined following the criteria proposed by Petit (1987). For the kinematic analysis in the Faultkin Ver. 8.3 software (Allmendinger et al. 2012), we applied the criteria of Marret and Allmendinger (1990).

The fracture analysis only included data from sidewalks and streets. Figure 5 shows the characteristics of sidewalk fractures. Most data varied between 0.5 and 1 m in length, followed by 1 to 1.5 m (Fig. 5a and Fig. 5b). Overall, these structures only present between 1 (65%) and 2 (23%) fractures (Fig. 5c). Sinking and wall fractures were not considered in this study because there are fewer cases in proportion, being only 6% of the total registered structures (Table 1).

Fractures in the street pavement ranged in length from 0.5 to 3 m (Fig. 6a), occurring in streets of 2 to 4 m wide; narrow streets rarely occur, and as in sidewalks, only one fracture occurs in each one (Fig. 6b). while the most common fracture zone width was between 1 and 2 m (Fig. 6c), mostly having just one fracture (Fig. 6d).

Figure 7 shows the Digital Slope Model (MDP) classified to evaluate geomorphological processes (SEDESOL 2004; SEDATU 2016). The slopes between 6° and 15° adjoin the bed of Arroyo las Pilas and decrease towards the SE and E. The street distribution grid has an NW-SE orientation aligned with the stream and the slope.

The azimuth of fractures in streets varies from 310° to 320° and in sidewalks from 290° to 310° with a lesser proportion up to 330°. Both types of urban fractures are parallel. The location of the measurement sites and the fracture diagrams are indicated in Fig. 7. Street orientation does not seem to have an influence on urban fracture because both types of fractures have a well-defined NW trend.

In addition to DSM (Fig. 7), to define a possible relationship with urban fracturing, we use the density dissection (Fig. 8a) and relief energy (Fig. 8b). Since the level curves are 10 m spaced, insufficient detail is possible; however, it is enough to determine a tendency. The model proposed by Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2012) was used for both variables.

The density dissection is the length of creeks within a defined area (Lugo-Hubp 1988). In Fig. 8a, the density dissection has an NW-SE tendency parallel to Arroyo Las Pilas, slope distribution, and urban fracturing. The values increase to the NE towards the Sierra de Zacatecas and decrease to the SW to the Calera Valley. The relief energy (Fig. 8b) is the difference in elevation within the area of measurement (Lugo-Hubp 1988). The relief energy could be interpreted as the ease with which the exogenous processes act on the surface. The distribution has an N-S trend, parallel to the normal fault, limiting the western margin of the Sierra de Zacatecas. The highest values are shown in the Sierra de Zacatecas and decrease towards the Calera Valley. In addition, in Fig. 8b, the relief energy iso values are parallel to the normal fault; nevertheless, it seems to have a relationship with urban fracturing.

The Arroyo Las Pilas presents a series of normal faults, which were measured and compared with those reported by Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2009) (Fig. 9). The faults measured are oblique to the western limit of the Sierra de Zacatecas (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2009) but parallel to the San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System. At both sites, the azimuth of the faults is almost parallel to that of the sideways and street fractures (Figs. 9a to 9g).

In urban fracturing, we measured the extension perpendicular to the structure's orientation, preferably in the downslope direction. However, this was not possible in the flat sites, so the rose diagrams are unidirectional. The dominant extent of fractures on sidewalks varies from 020° to 040° (Fig. 9b), while on streets, it is between 040° and 050° (Fig. 9d). On the faults, the extensional paleostress axis (σ3) of the fault set is at 018° (Fig. 9f). In comparison, at the Hacienda Nueva site it was 045° (Fig. 9h). The parallelism between the structures of the urban zone with the direction of the axis of the extensional paleostress suggests that the deformation of the basement has a control on the deformation of the urban areas.

Short-range structural problems are rarely considered in urban infrastructure and are traditionally associated with differential subsidence of buildings. In the construction processes of residential and urban infrastructure, fractures in walls and pavements are regularly related to the quality of the materials used, the quality of the construction, the natural sinking, and deficiencies in the building's foundation. Furthermore, as they are around 1 m long and have an average thickness of 1 mm, they are not given the required importance (Barrios-del Río 2018; Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2023).

Fractures in sidewalks and streets, often exceeding 10 m in length and occurring in multiple locations, are typically attributed to the quality of materials and construction, the direction of the slope, and the weight of the vehicles. However, this explanation must consider the significant role that geology, basement structure, and geomorphology may play in their formation. Understanding this complex relationship is crucial for addressing the root causes of urban infrastructure fractures.

Land subsidence associated with the overexploitation of aquifers and the structural control that the basement exerts on the formation of cracks is a well-known and studied phenomenon (e.g. Castelazzi et al. 2016; Carreón-Freyre et al. 2019; Cigna and Tapete 2021). Where the effects of subsidence are barely perceptible or observed just in a few places, monitoring is usually not done. The Las Pilas community is on the eastern edge of the Calera aquifer, which has an over-extraction of water (DOF 2016; CONAGUA 2024). This condition causes some cracks to have formed 10 km from the study area, to the SW (DOF 2016) and NW (Oreano and Barajas 2012). In the study area, no cracks have been reported due to the aquifer's overexploitation, so the community's fracturing is not directly associated with this process. Nevertheless, most likely it is with the structure of the basement.

The structural control of the basement and its relationship with the overexploitation of aquifers has been reported in the grabens of Aguascalientes, Querétaro, Loreto and Villa Hidalgo (Carreón-Freyre et al. 2005; Cigna and Tapete 2021; Muro-Ortega et al. 2022; State Government of Aguascalientes 2024).

In the study area, the reverse faults are dispersed in the NW and SE quadrants, while the normal faults have a clear tendency towards the NW and, to a lesser extent, to the NE, with the extension axis directed to the NE-SW. The orientation of the normal faults measured by Escalona-Alcázar et al. (2009) is parallel to that observed in the fractures in sidewalks, streets, and walls, as well as to the distribution of slopes and to that of the San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System (Loza-Aguirre et al. 2008). In the central and northern parts of the Sierra de Zacatecas, the preferred trend of the drainage pattern is towards the WNW-ESE (Escalona-Alcázar et al. 2012). That is, parallel to the main vein-fault systems of the mountain range (Pérez-Martínez 1961). Although the normal fault that crosses the community has an almost N-S orientation, it does not seem to control urban fracturing.

On the other hand, the San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System controls the basement structure in the study area, not only because of the orientation of the faults parallel to the channel of Arroyo Las Pilas and the slope but also because of the fractures measured in the community.

The distribution of fracturing adjacent to a fault zone is associated with the deformation zone of the main structure (Torabi et al. 2019). The deformed zone's amplitude depends on the failure's dimensions, the rock's mechanical resistance, and the duration of the stresses (Torabi et al. 2019). In the study area, the parallelism between the axis of extension of the faults and the extension of the fractures suggests the structural control of the SFSLT in the basement (Las Pilas Complex). In addition, the distribution of the fractures alludes to the effect of the deformation zone.

The structural control of the basement in the formation of fractures in the community of Las Pilas was defined from the systematic measurement of its residential and urban infrastructure. Although the fractures are minor, the measured data and their distribution allow us to conclude that the basement essentially controls the formation of cracks or fractures, which currently do not yet represent a severe risk to the residents.

The study area, with its unique characteristics, is a crucial focus of our research. It is primarily composed of areas with slopes less than 15°, which are linearly arranged towards the NW-SE, subparallel to Arroyo las Pilas. This stream, along with the main channels of the central and northern parts of the Sierra de Zacatecas, has a preferential orientation towards the WNW-ESE, similar to that of the San Luis-Tepehuanes Fault System, which suggests structural control. The fractures measured in the sidewalks and streets follow the orientation of the regional deformation pattern, albeit at a different scale, further emphasizing the unique nature of the study area.

The Calera aquifer occupies a valley that is part of the tectonic province of Cuencas and Sierras; the cracks due to overexploitation of the aquifer are more than 10 km from the Las Pilas community and are oriented from NNE to NNW; this trend is not observed in the study area. The different orientation is due to the fact that the rocks of the Las Pilas Complex record the deformation of the SFSLT, and although the limit of the Sierra de Zacatecas is close, the deformation of Cuencas and Sierras is not the dominant one in the formation of fractures in the community.

The methodology employed in this study has practical implications that extend beyond the scope of Las Pilas. It demonstrates how a diagnosis of the influence of the basement structure on the failures of the urban infrastructure can be easily carried out, not only for small towns but also for large settlements and urban areas with larger buildings and structures. This is particularly relevant as it represents a greater threat to the inhabitants during critical failures, accentuating the importance of our research.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper is part of the research project “Evaluation of the geologic, geomorphologic and seismic hazards in the Zacatecas Metropolitan Zone” under the responsibility of Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar. No funding sources were used for the development of this project.

CRediT author statement

Conceptualization: Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar; Methodology: Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar, Estefanía García-Paniagua, Luis Felipe Pineda-Martínez, Baudelio Rodríguez-González, Sayde María Teresa Reveles-Flores; Formal analysis and investigation: Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar, Estefanía García-Paniagua, Luis Felipe Pineda-Martínez, Baudelio Rodríguez-González; Writing original draft preparation: Felipe de Jesús Escalona-Alcázar; Writing-review & editing: Estefanía García-Paniagua, Luis Felipe Pineda-Martínez, Baudelio Rodríguez-González, Sayde María Teresa Reveles-Flores, Santiago Valle-Rodríguez; Resources: Santiago Valle-Rodríguez.

Data Availability

Data available under request.

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Basement structural control in urban fracturing, a case study in Zacatecas, Mexico

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1 INTRODUCTION

2 GEOLOGIC FRAMEWORK

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS

4 RESULTS

5 DISCUSSION

6 CONCLUSIONS

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References

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