Fused deposition modeling (FDM), an economical additive manufacturing (AM) technique, is widely used for extruding thermoplastic filaments. Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is a widely used polymer for FDM technique due to its inexpensive cost, strong impact strength, great durability, and intriguing uses. ABS materials are used for interior parts of automotive applications, drug-delivery systems, tracheal tubes, valves for ventilators, and medical masks. Nonetheless, shrinkage and warping are the primary weaknesses of ABS during the FDM process, affecting the dimensional stability of printed parts. In this context, a patent-pending radiant heating system has been developed to improve the overall performance of printed parts. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of in situ thermal treatment on the interlayer adhesion and mechanical properties of printed ABS parts. The thermal treatment was carried out on a radiant heating system at 240oC and a printing speed of 35 mm.s− 1. The physical and mechanical of ABS parts printed with and without radiant heating were then characterized. Various techniques including tensile tests, X-ray microtomography (µ-CT), optical profilometry (OP), atomic force microscopy (AFM), and dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), were conducted to investigate mechanical, microstructural, and topological properties of printed ABS parts. The results show that treated samples exhibit better interlayer adhesion than untreated ones. In addition, the treated samples had a lower porosity (1.6%) than the untreated samples (3%). Furthermore, the tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break of treated samples increased by 62%, 6%, and 110%, respectively compared to untreated ones.
Research Article
Effect of in Situ Thermal Treatment on ABS Parts produced by Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4921521/v1
This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License
Journal Publication
published 16 Oct, 2024
Read the published version in The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology →
You are reading this latest preprint version
Fused deposition modeling (FDM)
acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
radiant heating system
in situ thermal treatment
interlayer adhesion
porosity
microstructural
topographical
and mechanical properties
Additive manufacturing (AM) has developed rapidly and has been widely used to print complex parts in various aerospace, automotive, and medical applications [1–4]. This manufacturing technology constructs three-dimensional models directly from 3D computer-aided design (CAD) software to build layers of materials without requiring a die or mold [5]. The advantages of this 3D printing process over conventional manufacturing include rapid fabrication, low-cost manufacturing, customizing complex products, process simplicity, noise and material waste reduction [6–8]. There are different types of AM techniques to print various materials including polymers, metals, alloys, glass, ceramics, liquid resins, and their combinations [9, 10]. The most commonly used AM technique is, however, fused deposition modeling (FDM) for thermoplastic polymer filaments. This technique allows the extrusion of polymeric materials layer-by-layer to obtain a product. The FDM process has recently gained popularity in manufacturing industries requiring high-performance materials, such as aerospace, automotive, pipes, and fittings [11]. The principle of the FDM process consists of continuous filaments that are heated and extruded into a semi-liquid state by an extrusion head and a nozzle. During the extrusion process, layers are deposited and fused on top of each other to produce printed parts. These FDM-printed parts have a wide range of applications in different areas. The most widely used polymer is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) due to its inexpensive cost, strong impact strength, great durability, and intriguing uses [12, 13]. In fact, the typical uses of ABS materials in automotive manufacturing are interior parts, wheel covers, and dashboard components [14]. Moreover, ABS materials are also used for drug-delivery systems, tracheal tubes, valves for ventilators, and medical masks [15, 16]. Nonetheless, shrinkage and warping are the primary observable weaknesses of ABS during the FDM process, affecting the dimensional stability of printed parts. These drawbacks of ABS are due to its high processing temperature (250–270oC) and high coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) (87–104 µm/moC) [8, 17, 18]. In addition, the FDM parts present poor interlayer strength and high porosity leading to their inferior mechanical properties compared to injection and compression molded parts [8, 17, 19].
Numerous approaches have revealed that varied printing parameters substantially impact the mechanical characteristics and interlayer strength of FDM parts. These printing parameters are raster angle, raster width, infill pattern, infill density, nozzle diameter, nozzle temperature, bed temperature, printing speed, layer height, and layer width [20–22]. Furthermore, good interlayer strength plays a key role in having outstanding mechanical properties of printed parts. FDM printed parts can be thermally treated during (in situ) and after (post-process) printing to enhance their mechanical properties, interlayer strength, and surface roughness. Hart et al. (2018) [23] revealed that the post-process thermal treatment enhanced the inter-laminar toughness of printed ABS parts. The authors reported that the inter-laminar toughness of thermally treated parts increased by 2700% compared to untreated parts. Rane et al. (2020) [24] also reported that post-thermal treatment increased the ultimate tensile strength of printed ABS parts by 89%. Moreover, Mushtaq et al. (2024) [25] investigated the post-process laser polishing technique to improve the mechanical properties and surface roughness of printed ABS parts. The results showed that surface roughness was reduced by more than 19% for printed ABS parts with laser polishing. In addition, the tensile strength of treated specimens with laser polishing increased by 8% compared to untreated ones. It is noted that post-thermal treatment of ABS parts above their glass transition temperature (Tg) enhances material reflow, resulting in micro-void reduction. However, post-thermal treatment can affect the dimensional tolerances and deformations of printed parts [26]. Recently, in-process thermal treatment has been developed to improve the mechanical and geometrical properties of FDM parts [27, 28]. Singh et al. (2019) [27] enhanced the mechanical and surface qualities of printed ABS parts by using an air-convection electric oven at various temperatures (105, 115, and 125oC) as a thermal treatment method during printing. Biswal et al. (2024) [28] developed an in-process laser heating system that consists of an infrared CO2 laser coupled with a FDM printer. The results indicated that the bond tensile strength of laser-treated ABS parts increased by 9.5% over non-laser-treated parts. Sharing the same point of view, Ravi et al. (2016) reported an increase of 50% in the interlayer strength of printed ABS parts using localized laser heating [29]. Bräuer et al. (2021) [30] also revealed that in-process laser treatment enhanced the interlayer strength of printed ABS parts. In that case, tensile strength and elongation at break of laser-assisted printed parts increased by 7% and 35%, respectively. Despite its advantages, using laser treatment requires extra cost and complicated procedures [7]. Furthermore, there is limited research on the effect of in situ treatment using a radiant heating system for FDM-printed ABS parts’ performance.
In this study, a radiant heating system was developed based on our previous research [7, 31] to investigate the influence of in situ thermal treatment on the interlayer adhesion, mechanical strength, and microstructure properties of printed ABS parts. Different thermal treatment temperatures and printing speeds were studied as preliminary investigations. The performance of printed ABS parts with and without radiant heating was then compared. A tensile test was carried out to evaluate the mechanical properties of printed ABS parts. The microstructure and porosity properties were examined using X-ray microtomography (µ-CT) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis. In addition, interlayer adhesion was also investigated by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA). Moreover, optical profilometry (OP) analysis was performed to provide surface roughness characteristics of printed ABS parts.
2.1. Materials
Commercial amorphous thermoplastic acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS M30 Ivory) filaments (Stratasys inc., MN, USA) with a nominal diameter of 1.75 mm, density of 1.05 g/cm3, and a glass transition temperature of 105oC were used for the fabrication of FDM-printed parts.
2.2 Printing process
ABS samples were manufactured using a FDM Prusa i3 MK3S + printer (Prusa inc., Czech Republic) without a heated chamber equipped with a 0.6 mm nozzle diameter. A patent-pending radiant heating system coupled with the FDM printer [31] includes a mounting enclosure, a heating element, and a radiant plate, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The printing procedure was carried out in five stages: (i) heating materials, (ii) extruding the first amount of the heated materials onto the platform, (iii) creating a first layer of deposition, (iv) heating a portion of the deposition layer using the radiant heating system, and (v) extruding a second amount of the heated material onto the heated deposition layer. In order to choose suitable printing parameters, preliminary tests were undertaken based on our earlier research with different thermal treatment temperatures of 220, 240, 260, 270, and 280oC [31]. These preliminary results can also be found in the supplementary data (appendix A). In this study, the optimal radiant heating temperature and printing speed were 240oC and 35 mm/s, respectively, based on the mechanical strength of printed parts [31]. Prior to printing, ABS filaments were dried at 80oC for at least 8 hours in an oven and stored in a chamber at 75oC to remove moisture. The materials were then printed according to the optimal parameters provided in Table 1. Type IV, ASTM D638 tensile samples [32] were printed in the Z-X direction for all analyses, excluding the DMA testing with rectangular samples (Fig. 2). It should be noted that the treated and untreated sample designations used throughout this article were assigned to samples printed with and without radiant heating system, respectively.
| Parameters | Values |
|---|---|
| Nozzle diameter | 0.6 mm |
| Nozzle temperature | 295 oC |
| Bed temperature | 100 oC |
| Radiant heating temperature | 240 oC (only for treated sample) |
| Extrusion factor | 0.98 |
| Layer thickness | 0.2 mm |
| Infill line direction | Z-direction (0 o) |
| Infill pattern | Lines |
| Infill density | 100% |
| Line width | 0.69 mm |
| Printing speed | 35 mm.s− 1 |
2.3 Tensile test
The tensile strength of printed ABS samples with and without the radiant heating system was evaluated in compliance with ASTM D638 [32] using a universal testing machine (Zwick/Roell Z030). A type IV dog-bone sample (Fig. 2) was clamped on each end, and a load of 30 kN with a rate of 5 mm/min was applied. The testing conditions were at 23oC and 50% relative humidity. Five replicates were tested. In this study, the stress-strain curves and the average tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break were reported.
2.4 X-ray microtomography (µ-CT)
X-ray microtomography (µ-CT), a non-destructive imaging technique, was used to examine the porosity and void distribution. In this study, a Zeiss Xradia 520 Versa X-ray microscope was used to visualize the inside of materials at a voltage of 60 kV. The fractured samples after the tensile tests were analyzed to provide 2D radiographs. The microtomographs obtained were processed with the image reconstruction Dragonfly software tool for 3D visualization and analysis. The porosity and void distribution of printed samples with and without radiant heating were determined after three replicates.
2.5 Optical profilometry (OP) analysis
In this study, a non-contact optical profilometer (Polytec micro view ®+) was used to evaluate the surface roughness of printed ABS samples after tensile tests. The fractured surfaces received 5 nm of palladium-gold to improve the sample reflectivity. The contactless white-light interferometry was used to analyze the three-dimensional surface profile. The magnification of the objective lens (Nikon MUL42051) used in the measurement was x5. A Gaussian filter was applied to reduce noise and blur regions of an image. The surface roughness was determined after three measures in compliance with ISO 25178 [33] and ISO 21920 [34].
2.6 Atomic force microscopy (AFM) analysis
AFM analysis is a great technique for investigating surface characterization and nanomechanical properties. AFM consists of a sharp tip attached to a thin cantilever to scan the material surface. Generally, the AFM is operated in two contact and tapping modes. In the contact mode, the AFM tip maintains continuous contact with the material surface. Contrariwise, the AFM cantilever is vibrated corresponding to the intermittent contact of the tip with the material surface in the tapping mode. This study employed a Nanosurf FlexAFM equipped with a C3000 controller to investigate the surface characterization and elastic modulus of fractured ABS samples printed with and without radiant heating after tensile tests. The AFM analysis was performed with a silicon tip in air at 23oC. The AFM image scans (10 x 10 µm2) consisting of 250 data points per line with a vibration amplitude of 500 mV were used to evaluate the surface characterization in the tapping mode. In addition, the AFM contact mode was employed to determine the elastic modulus of samples. For this contact mode, the “force-distance” curves were collected over a distance range of 0.6 µm, 1024 data points, and an applied force of 100 nN. Furthermore, a Setpoint of 60% and an I-Gain value of 2000 were set to deal with error signals for both AFM tapping and contact modes. Three replicates were tested for each contact and tapping mode.
2.7 Time-temperature superposition (TTS)/DMA tests
Time-temperature superposition (TTS) is commonly used to provide master creep or relaxation curves to investigate the interlayer adhesion of printed samples. The good local relaxation and flexibility of polymer chains contribute to the good interlayer strength of materials [35]. The TTS tests can also determine the creep modulus at elevated temperatures. Generally, the creep or relaxation curves obtained at high frequencies and temperatures can be used to create a master curve at the reference temperature. The master curve is then extrapolated to determine the creep modulus of materials. In this study, the TTS tests were carried out using a DMA device (DMA 850 from TA instruments) to investigate the interlayer adhesion of ABS printed with and without radiant heating systems. The ABS samples – measuring 60 x 10 x 3 mm3 – were printed with the same parameters as tensile samples (Table 1). The tests were conducted using the dual cantilever mode at frequencies from 1 to 100 Hz and temperature ranged from 30 to 135oC with 5oC steps. A heating rate of 5oC/min and a strain of 0.01% were applied for each temperature step. Three replicates were tested.
3.1 Mechanical properties
Figure 3 indicates the typical stress-strain curves of untreated and treated printed ABS samples. As a result, a brittle fracture behavior was observed for both untreated and treated samples. Furthermore, Fig. 4 presents the average tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break of printed ABS samples. The vertical bars show the standard deviation of five replicates. It should be noted that preliminary tests with different thermal treatments of 220, 240, 260, 270, and 280oC and a printing speed of 35 mm.s− 1 were conducted based on our previous study [31]. These results can be found in complementary data (appendix A, Figs. 1A, 2A, and 3A). In this study, the optimal thermal treatment using radiant heating was 240oC. For untreated samples, the average tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break were 19.0 MPa, 1921 MPa, and 1.0%, respectively. In contrast, the radiant heating system enhanced the tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break of treated samples up to 30.7 MPa, 2028 MPa, and 2.1%, respectively (Fig. 4). In fact, the radiant heating system can increase the tensile strength by 62%, the elastic modulus by 6%, and the elongation at break by 110% for printed ABS samples. These observations can be attributed to the enhanced mobility and heat energy of polymer chains during thermal treatment. Layers fused and bonded together when they achieved enough thermal energy, resulting in improved mechanical properties. However, higher thermal treatments (260, 270, and 280oC) can degrade the interlayer surface material [36], leading to a decline in mechanical properties (appendix A).
3.2 Degree of porosity
µ-CT analysis was conducted to investigate the porosity degree of fractured samples after tensile tests. Figure 5 shows the µ-CT scan images of untreated and treated samples. In this study, the reconstructed volume information was generated using the Dragonfly software tool coupled with tomographic data. As a result, the porosity was found to be 3% and 1.6% in untreated and treated samples, respectively. It should be noted that the degree of porosity depends on various factors including melt flow rate, infill orientation, bed temperature, and nozzle temperature [37]. However, all samples were printed with the same parameters, excluding treated samples with the radiant heating systems. In other words, the degree of porosity was affected by thermal treatment. It manifests that treated samples have less porosity than untreated ones. Based on the results, thermal treatment using radiant heating decreases the degree of porosity and improves the mechanical properties of treated samples.
3.3 Surface roughness properties
Surface roughness plays a major role in evaluating the potential mechanical and interlayer adhesion of printed parts. Surface irregularities are attributed to the presence of cracks and weak areas. While higher surface roughness values indicate the rougher surfaces, lower values correspond to the smooth surfaces. In this study, both area and profile roughness were measured for fracture surfaces of untreated and treated samples after tensile tests. The roughness average (Sa) and root mean square (Sq) were used to determine the area roughness. In addition, the roughness average (Ra) and root mean square (Rq) were characterized for the profile roughness. Figure 6 presents the area roughness of untreated and treated samples. Furthermore, the profile roughness was measured by drawing two-dimensional lines I-I and II-II at the center of filaments for untreated and treated samples, respectively. The area and profile roughness were then determined in compliance with ISO 25178 [33] and ISO 21920 [34], respectively. The results indicated that the distinguished printed layers were visible for untreated samples. In addition, untreated samples were rougher than the treated ones due to their higher surface roughness values (Table 2). Moreover, the radiant heating decreased by 18% in surface roughness for treated samples.
| Roughness values | Untreated specimen | Treated specimen |
|---|---|---|
| Roughness average (Sa) | 6.01 ± 0.24 µm | 4.98 ± 0.09 µm |
| Root mean square (Sq) | 9.14 ± 0.06 µm | 7.42 ± 0.10 µm |
| Roughness average (Ra) - Profile | 2.21 ± 0.15 µm | 1.78 ± 0.07 µm |
| Root mean square (Rq) - Profile | 2.87 ± 0.16 µm | 2.39 ± 0.10 µm |
3.4 Nanostructural properties
While optical profilometry analysis provides the topographical characterization at the microscale, AFM analysis can investigate the mechanical properties and surface characterization of printed samples at the nanoscale. Figure 7 shows the 2D and 3D AFM topographic images (10 x 10 µm2) with the tapping mode of untreated and treated samples after tensile tests. The results indicate visible layers on the untreated sample surface (Fig. 7a). Moreover, the AFM tapping mode can also provide the area surface roughness of untreated and treated samples. As a result, the roughness average (Sa) and root mean square (Sq) of untreated samples were greater than those of treated ones as illustrated in Table 3. These findings were similar to the observations in optical profilometry analysis. It can be concluded, once again, that radiant heating systems can reduce the surface roughness of treated samples. Furthermore, the nanomechanical properties of samples were also calculated using the AFM contact mode. In the present study, the Hertz model was applied to determine the modulus of printed samples due to its simplicity. This model only considers the elastic behavior of materials [19]. A tip radius of 10 nm, a Poisson’s ratio of 0.5, and 8 x 8 indents with (0.6 x 0.6 µm2) AFM indentation arrays were applied for scanning over the surface area of samples. In addition, the maximum applied force was 100 nN. The Young’s modulus values at each area (0.6 x 0.6 µm2) were then measured using a flex-ANA software coupled with AFM analysis as illustrated in Fig. 8. In addition, Table 3 presents the average Young’s modulus of untreated and treated samples. As a result, the average Young’s modulus of untreated samples (3.02 GPa) was slightly lower than that of treated ones (3.23 GPa).
| Roughness values | Untreated specimen | Treated specimen |
|---|---|---|
| Roughness average (Sa) | 65.5 ± 2.02 nm | 30.4 ± 1.32 nm |
| Root mean square (Sq) | 91.0 ± 4.67 nm | 66.9 ± 3.28 nm |
| Average Young’s modulus | 3.02 ± 0.08 GPa | 3.23 ± 0.10 GPa |
3.5 Interlayer adhesion analysis
The interlayer adhesion between the printed layers can be evaluated through the creep or relaxation master curves of materials. The good local relaxation and flexibility of polymer chains contribute to the good interlayer strength of materials [35]. Time-temperature superposition (TTS) is a widely used method to obtain these master curves. The principle of this method is based on the Williams–Landel–Ferry (WLF) relationship to reduce the time factor by elevated temperature. The horizontal shift factor (aT) as described in Eq. (1) is generally used to obtain frequencies beyond the experimental range at elevated temperatures. These creep or relaxation cures are then shifted to generate a master curve. It is noted that the temperatures below the reference temperature are shifted to higher frequencies, whereas the temperatures above are shifted to lower frequencies as illustrated in Fig. 9.
where, aT is the horizontal shift factor; T is the temperature; Tr is the reference temperature; and C1 and C2 are the WLF coefficients. C1 and C2 are universal constants of 17.4 K and 51.6 K, respectively once the reference temperature is Tg.
Figure 10a presents the different creep curves at temperatures ranging from 30 to 135oC with a temperature step of 5oC and at frequencies ranging from 1 to 100 Hz. These different curves were then shifted using a shift factor in Eq. (1) to generate a master curve (Fig. 10b). It should be noted that the Tg of 105oC was used as a reference temperature of ABS materials. As a result, the creep modulus of untreated samples was slightly lower than that of treated ones. The findings are in agreement with the AFM analysis. Therefore, treated samples may exhibit better interlayer adhesion than untreated samples.
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) is the most often used material for the 3D FDM technique due to its inexpensive cost, strong impact strength, great durability, and intriguing uses. Nonetheless, shrinkage and warping are the primary weaknesses of ABS during the FDM process, affecting the dimensional stability of printed parts. In this study, in situ thermal treatment with a radiant heating system was used to investigate the mechanical, microstructural, and nanostructural properties, degree of porosity, surface roughness, and interlayer strength of printed ABS parts. The radiant heating temperature of 240oC and a printing speed of 35 mm.s− 1 were the optimal printing parameters. According to the findings of the present study, the following conclusions were drawn.
-
The thermal treatment during printing enhanced the mechanical properties of printed ABS parts. The tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elongation at break of treated samples increased by 62%, 6%, and 110%, respectively compared to untreated ones.
-
The in situ thermal treatment could decrease the degree of porosity resulting in improved mechanical properties of treated samples. The µ-CT analysis reported that the porosity was found to be 3% and 1.6% in untreated and treated samples, respectively.
-
Optical profilometry (OP) analysis revealed that the fracture surface of untreated samples was rougher than that of treated ones. The radiant heating decreased by 18% in surface roughness for treated samples compared to untreated samples.
-
The AFM analysis reported, once again, that radiant heating systems can reduce the surface roughness of treated samples. The fracture surface of untreated samples was rougher than that of treated samples. For nanomechanical properties, the average Young’s modulus of untreated samples (3.02 GPa) was slightly lower than that of treated ones (3.23 GPa).
-
The TTS/DMA analysis showed that the creep modulus of untreated samples was slightly lower than that of treated ones. Therefore, treated samples may exhibit better interlayer adhesion than untreated samples.
-
According to the findings of this study, the in situ thermal treatment using a radiant heating system can enhance the quality of printed ABS parts. Further approaches on the improved FDM technique and advanced analysis should be taken into account to improve the final product’s quality. The possibility of using 3D-printed ABS materials for automotive and medical applications should also be conducted.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be considered as potential competing interests:
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) and the PRIMA Quebec for the financial support of this research. The authors are also grateful to the technical staff of COALIA for their technical assistance. In addition, the authors are thankful to Polytechnique Montreal for using the µ-CT device and software.
Data Availability Statement
Some or all data, models, or code that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
- Jandyal A, Chaturvedi I, Wazir I, Raina A, Ul Haq MI (2022) 3D printing – A review of processes, materials and applications in industry 4.0. Sustainable Oper Computers 3:33–42. 10.1016/j.susoc.2021.09.004
- Curran S, Chambon P, Lind R, Love L, Wagner R, Whitted S, Smith D, Post B, Graves R (2016) C., Big Area Additive Manufacturing and Hardware-in-the-Loop for Rapid Vehicle Powertrain Prototyping: A Case Study on the Development of a 3-D-Printed Shelby Cobra, presented at the SAE World Congress and Exhibition, Apr. 2016, pp. 2016-01-0328. 10.4271/2016-01-0328
- Zadpoor AA, Malda J (Jan. 2017) Additive Manufacturing of Biomaterials, Tissues, and Organs. Ann Biomed Eng 45(1):1–11. 10.1007/s10439-016-1719-y
- Biswas K, Rose J, Eikevik L, Guerguis M, Enquist P, Lee B, Love L, Green J, Jackson R (Feb. 2017) Additive Manufacturing Integrated Energy—Enabling Innovative Solutions for Buildings of the Future. J Sol Energy Eng 139(1):015001. 10.1115/1.4034980
- Huang SH, Liu P, Mokasdar A, Hou L (2013) Additive manufacturing and its societal impact: a literature review, Int J Adv Manuf Technol, vol. 67, no. 5–8, pp. 1191–1203, Jul. 10.1007/s00170-012-4558-5
- Ford S, Despeisse M (2016) Additive manufacturing and sustainability: an exploratory study of the advantages and challenges, Journal of Cleaner Production, vol. 137, pp. 1573–1587, Nov. 10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.04.150
- Nguyen KQ, Vuillaume PY, Hu L, Vachon A, Diouf-Lewis A, Marcoux PL, Robert M, Elkoun S (Jun. 2024) Effect of in situ thermal treatment on interlayer adhesion of 3D printed polyetherimide (PEI) parts produced by fused deposition modeling (FDM). Mater Today Commun 39:108588. 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.108588
- Nguyen KQ, Vuillaume PY, Hu L, López-Beceiro J, Cousin P, Elkoun S, Robert M (2023) Recycled, Bio-Based, and Blended Composite Materials for 3D Printing Filament: Pros and Cons—A Review. MSA 14(03):148–185. 10.4236/msa.2023.143010
- Singh S, Ramakrishna S, Singh R (Jan. 2017) Material issues in additive manufacturing: A review. J Manuf Process 25:185–200. 10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.11.006
- Saadi MASR, Maguire A, Pottackal NT, Thakur MSH, Ikram MM, Hart AJ, Ajayan PM, Rahman MM (Jul. 2022) Direct Ink Writing: A 3D Printing Technology for Diverse Materials. Adv Mater 34(28):2108855. 10.1002/adma.202108855
- Bacciaglia A, Ceruti A, Liverani A (2022) Towards Large Parts Manufacturing in Additive Technologies for Aerospace and Automotive applications. Procedia Comput Sci 200:1113–1124. 10.1016/j.procs.2022.01.311
- Dawoud M, Taha I, Ebeid SJ (Jan. 2016) Mechanical behaviour of ABS: An experimental study using FDM and injection moulding techniques. J Manuf Process 21:39–45. 10.1016/j.jmapro.2015.11.002
- Nguyen KQ, Vuillaume PY, Hu L, Vachon A, Diouf-Lewis A, Marcoux P-L, Gagné L, Robert M, Elkoun S (May 2024) Influence of thermal treatment on surface roughness, microstructural, and mechanical properties of 3D printed ABS. presented Mater Form 201–209. 10.21741/9781644903131-22
- Yadav DK, Srivastava R, Dev S (2020) Design & fabrication of ABS part by FDM for automobile application, Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 26, pp. 2089–2093, 10.1016/j.matpr.2020.02.451
- Arefin AME, Khatri NR, Kulkarni N, Egan PF (May 2021) Polymer 3D Printing Review: Materials, Process, and Design Strategies for Medical Applications. Polymers 13(9):1499. 10.3390/polym13091499
- Ziąbka M, Dziadek M, Pielichowska K (Jan. 2020) Surface and Structural Properties of Medical Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Modified with Silver Nanoparticles. Polymers 12(1):197. 10.3390/polym12010197
- Weng Z, Wang J, Senthil T, Wu L (Jul. 2016) Mechanical and thermal properties of ABS/montmorillonite nanocomposites for fused deposition modeling 3D printing. Mater Design 102:276–283. 10.1016/j.matdes.2016.04.045
- Choi Y-H, Kim C-M, Jeong H-S, Youn J-H (2016) Influence of Bed Temperature on Heat Shrinkage Shape Error in FDM Additive Manufacturing of the ABS-Engineering Plastic. WJET 04(03):186–192. 10.4236/wjet.2016.43D022
- Nguyen KQ, Vuillaume PY, Robert M, Elkoun S (2023) AFM Analysis of 3D Printing PEI for Automotive Applications, in Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Mechanical, Automotive and Materials Engineering, J. P. T. Mo, Ed., in Lecture Notes in Mechanical Engineering, Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, pp. 123–133. 10.1007/978-981-99-3672-4_10
- Agrawal AP, Kumar V, Kumar J, Paramasivam P, Dhanasekaran S, Prasad L (Jun. 2023) An investigation of combined effect of infill pattern, density, and layer thickness on mechanical properties of 3D printed ABS by fused filament fabrication. Heliyon 9(6):e16531. 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16531
- Tanveer MQ, Mishra G, Mishra S, Sharma R (2022) Effect of infill pattern and infill density on mechanical behaviour of FDM 3D printed Parts- a current review, Materials Today: Proceedings, vol. 62, pp. 100–108, 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.02.310
- Nabavi-Kivi A, Ayatollahi MR, Rezaeian P, Razavi N (Apr. 2022) Investigating the effect of printing speed and mode mixity on the fracture behavior of FDM-ABS specimens. Theoret Appl Fract Mech 118:103223. 10.1016/j.tafmec.2021.103223
- Hart KR, Dunn RM, Sietins JM, Hofmeister Mock CM, Mackay ME, Wetzel ED (May 2018) Increased fracture toughness of additively manufactured amorphous thermoplastics via thermal annealing. Polymer 144:192–204. 10.1016/j.polymer.2018.04.024
- Rane R, Kulkarni A, Prajapati H, Taylor R, Jain A, Chen V (Jan. 2020) Post-Process Effects of Isothermal Annealing and Initially Applied Static Uniaxial Loading on the Ultimate Tensile Strength of Fused Filament Fabrication Parts. Materials 13(2):352. 10.3390/ma13020352
- Mushtaq RT, Wang Y, Bao C, Chen X, Anwar S, Sharma S, Khan AM, Sharma K, Bisht YS, Abbas M, Kozak D, Tropša V (2024) Multi-objective optimization of laser polishing parameters for enhanced mechanical properties, sustainability, and surface finish of 3D-Printed industrial ABS polymers using response surface methodology (RSM), Journal of Materials Research and Technology, vol. 29, pp. 3168–3184, Mar. 10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.02.023
- Butt J, Bhaskar R (2020) Investigating the Effects of Annealing on the Mechanical Properties of FFF-Printed Thermoplastics, JMMP, vol. 4, no. 2, p. 38, Apr. 10.3390/jmmp4020038
- Singh S, Singh M, Prakash C, Gupta MK, Mia M, Singh R (2019) Optimization and reliability analysis to improve surface quality and mechanical characteristics of heat-treated fused filament fabricated parts, Int J Adv Manuf Technol, vol. 102, no. 5–8, pp. 1521–1536, Jun. 10.1007/s00170-018-03276-8
- Biswal HJ, Metcalf M, Stefanescu C, Lucon P (2024) Development of a laser-assisted fused deposition modeling process for improvement in bond tensile strength of ABS, Journal of Polymer Science, vol. 62, no. 11, pp. 2503–2514, Jun. 10.1002/pol.20230926
- Ravi AK, Deshpande A, Hsu KH (Oct. 2016) An in-process laser localized pre-deposition heating approach to inter-layer bond strengthening in extrusion based polymer additive manufacturing. J Manuf Process 24:179–185. 10.1016/j.jmapro.2016.08.007
- Bräuer G, Sachsenhofer K, Lang RW (Oct. 2021) Material and process engineering aspects to improve the quality of the bonding layer in a laser-assisted fused filament fabrication process. Additive Manuf 46:102105. 10.1016/j.addma.2021.102105
- Vachon A, Vuillaume P-Y, Deschamps L, Hu L, Diouf Lewis A, Marcoux P-L COALIA Patent 3177826, Printhead and additive manufacturing methods. Canada, 2023. [Online]. Available: https://www.ic.gc.ca/opic-cipo/cpd/eng/patent/3177826/summary.html?query=3177826&type=basic_search
- ASTM D638 (2014) Standard Test Methods for Tensile Properties of Plastics. ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA
- ISO 25178 (2021) Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture. ISO (the International Organization for Standardization)
- ISO 21920 (2021) Geometrical product specifications (GPS) — Surface texture - Profile methods. ISO (the International Organization for Standardization)
- Nguyen NA, Bowland CC, Naskar AK (Sep. 2018) A general method to improve 3D-printability and inter-layer adhesion in lignin-based composites. Appl Mater Today 12:138–152. 10.1016/j.apmt.2018.03.009
- Nomani J, Wilson D, Paulino M, Mohammed (2020) Effect of layer thickness and cross-section geometry on the tensile and compression properties of 3D printed ABS. Mater Today Commun 22. 10.1016/j.mtcomm.2019.100626
- Papon EA, Haque A (2018) Tensile properties, void contents, dispersion and fracture behaviour of 3D printed carbon nanofiber reinforced composites, Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 381–395, Mar. 10.1177/0731684417750477