Impact of Motivation and Social Support on Elderly Engagement in Korean Archery: A TPB Approach

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4923529/v1

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Impact of Motivation and Social Support on Elderly Engagement in Korean Archery: A TPB Approach

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4923529/v1

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Through the lens of the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB), this study addresses key research gaps by investigating three primary objectives: (1) exploring the influence of participation motivation on attitudes; (2) examining the effects of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on behavioral intention; and (3) analyzing the moderating role of social support in these associations. Survey data were collected from amateur Han-gung athletes participating in ten senior Han-gung tournaments in South Korea. To ensure measurement scale robustness, confirmatory factor analysis, assessing factor loadings, average variance extracted (AVE), and construct reliability (CR) were conducted, with Cronbach’s alpha confirming scale reliability. The findings reveal the significant impact of participation motivation on attitudes and the positive effects of attitudes and PBC on behavioral intention. Moreover, social support emerges as a moderator in the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention. Academically, this study enriches the TPB framework by incorporating social support as a moderator, while practically, it offers insights for sports organizers and policymakers seeking to promote participation and engagement in Han-gung, particularly among the elderly population.

Participation motivation

older adults

theory of planned behavior

social support

Han-gung

As the population over the age of 60 is expected to rise rapidly in the coming decades due to low fertility rates and longer life expectancy, approximately one in six individuals is projected to be aged 60 or older by 2050 (Han & Lee, 2020). This trend reflects a transition to an aging society. Aging often brings about declines in both physical and mental health, along with shifts in social networks, potentially hindering seniors' engagement in daily interactions within their families and communities (Fernández-Mayoralas et al., 2015). Despite these difficulties, participating in recreational activities can mitigate the impacts of aging on both physical and mental health, while also fostering social connections and enhancing the overall well-being of older adults. Physical activity is particularly emphasized among the leisure pursuits of older adults, with guidelines recommending a variety of activities such as balance training, aerobic exercises, and muscle strengthening for those aged 65 and above (Piercy et al., 2018). UNESCO recommends expanding physical activities to reduce medical expenses for the elderly. This implies that preventing illness through exercise before it occurs can be a fundamental solution to the exponentially increasing medical costs for seniors, rather than providing medical treatment after they become ill. Research increasingly highlights the numerous health benefits of physical activity, including the prevention and management of chronic diseases and conditions (Hayes & Kriska, 2008).

As interest in diverse leisure activities continues to grow among older adults, Han-gung, a traditional Korean sport that combines elements of archery and darts, has emerged as a popular and accessible option in South Korea (Kwon et al., 2019). To elaborate on what Han-gung specifically is, it is a fusion of the traditional Korean games of Toho (a game involving throwing arrows into a jar) and Gukgung (Korean archery), along with elements from the Western sports of archery and darts. Han-gung utilizes specialized equipment designed to ensure safety, incorporating unique Korean IT technology. Recently, it has become a prominent sport among the elderly in Korea. Han-gung requires a level of concentration and skill similar to that of archery when throwing, and achieving high scores necessitates maintaining a consistent and stable posture (Kwon et al., 2019). Han-gung, in particular, is a new sport that naturally engages both hands and both hemispheres of the brain (left and right), enhancing concentration, contributing to physical balance development, and fostering emotional intelligence (EQ) (Hu & Kwon, 2016). Additionally, it helps prevent degenerative diseases such as shoulder stiffness, frozen shoulder, and dementia. Therefore, exploring the antecedent variables influencing the intention to continue participating in han-gung can contribute to the promotion of elderly health and growth of the senior sports.

To explore the factors that affect the desire to persist in practicing han-gung, this study employs the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). Evolving from the theory of reasoned action (TRA), TPB has emerged as a widely recognized framework for comprehending human behavior across diverse fields in recent years (Kim & Jeong, 2024; Ulker-Demirel & Ciftci, 2020). This theory posits that an individual's inclination to adopt a behavior is shaped by their attitudes towards it, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) (Yu & Jeong, 2022). A stronger intention to engage in the behavior is associated with an increased probability of actually carrying it out (Kumar & Nayak, 2023). Moreover, according to prior research, motivation can influence attitudes (Lee, 2019). Lee (2019) viewed motivation as the fundamental driving force toward a particular goal, suggesting that attitudes are shaped by various motivations. Therefore, in this study, we analyze whether the motivation to participate in han-gung influences attitudes. Moreover, in order to distinguish this study from previous research, the present study investigates how social support moderates the relationships. Elderly individuals who receive significant social support are inclined to sustain positive attitudes and behaviors during their physical exercises, benefiting from assistance provided by their social network (Kang & Jeon, 2022). Hence, exploring the moderating role of social support in the relationships among attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC on behavioral intention is a worthwhile pursuit.

Therefore, utilizing the TPB framework, this study aims to fill several gaps in current research by investigating (1) the impact of participation motivation on attitudes; (2) the influence of attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) on behavioral intention; and (3) the moderating role of social support on these variables.

Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses

Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behavior

Human cognition is predominantly rational, as individuals' actions are largely driven by rational deliberations and calculations aimed at maximizing their self-interests (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Expanding upon this notion, they introduced the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) to elucidate and forecast economic and social phenomena. In addition to prioritizing rational judgment and maximizing benefits, TRA incorporates the principle of choice and exchange, suggesting that individuals endeavor to efficiently allocate their limited resources. Furthermore, TRA encompasses the concept of 'expectations and actual outcomes,' positing that individuals anticipate desired results from their actions and act accordingly.

TRA posits that components of such rational behavior consist of attitudes and subjective norms (Kim et al., 2020). Attitudes play a significant role across diverse domains including social psychology, marketing, and education, facilitating comprehension and anticipation of human psychology and behavior. Attitude denotes an individual's overall assessment or viewpoint regarding a specific object, subject, or conduct. It may manifest as positive or negative, affinity or aversion, and favorable or unfavorable (Ajzen & Fisbbein, 1974). In the context of sports, attitude can be described as an individual's overall assessment or perspective on a specific sport, exercise, or athletic behavior. It reflects their general feelings, beliefs, and opinions toward sports participation, encompassing elements such as enjoyment, significance, interest, and satisfaction. Attitudes can be generally comprised of two key components. The first aspect to consider is the cognitive dimension, which pertains to an individual's beliefs or understanding. For example, someone expressing sentiments like "Participating in han-gung is essential to me" or "Engaging in han-gung holds significance" indicates positive beliefs and understanding about han-gung. Secondly, attitudes encompass the affective aspect, revealing the emotions individuals feel toward han-gung. Expressions such as "I enjoy han-gung" or "Han-gung brings me joy" signify positive emotions linked to han-gung.

Subjective norm refers to the perceived social influence that motivates an individual to engage in (or abstain from) a specific behavior (Moon, 2021). As social creatures, humans have an innate tendency to conform to the expectations of their social environment during interactions, thereby greatly increasing the likelihood of engaging in corresponding behaviors (Yu & Jeong, 2022). If individuals perceive favorable assessments from their peers regarding han-gung participation, they are more inclined to choose to partake in the activity. Conversely, if their peers express unfavorable opinions about han-gung, individuals are more likely to opt out of engaging in it. Attitudes and subjective norms differ in their origins: attitudes stem from individual experiences and perceptions, whereas subjective norms are shaped by external influences, such as societal expectations and peer pressure. This distinction highlights the interplay between personal beliefs and social pressures in shaping behavior.

Introduced to the world, the TRA was widely embraced by researchers until the late 1990s, when certain shortcomings came to light. For example, individuals involved in han-gung might exhibit positive attitudes towards participating in the sport, with support from family and friends. However, factors like physical injuries or personal obligations could hinder their ability to engage in han-gung. Such scenarios involve behavioral aspects that individuals may struggle to control, impacting their intentions (Yu & Jeong, 2022). In response, Ajzen (1991) proposed the TPB as a means to address the TRA's limitations by integrating PBC. PBC is the third determinant of behavioral intention, representing an individual's perception of the ease or difficulty associated with carrying out a behavior, considering internal and external constraints such as skills, resources, and environmental factors (Ajzen, 1991). While attitude and subjective norms can forecast behaviors that individuals may willingly engage in or refrain from, the inclusion of PBC in the model aims to elucidate behaviors that are not solely determined by the individual's volitional control.

Participation Motivation

From a sports science standpoint, it can be argued that motivation is among the pivotal factors influencing individuals' engagement in sports participation (Wallhead & Ntoumanis, 2004). Hence, motivation stands out as the most reliable indicator of an individual's dedication to future sports and physical endeavors (Iso-Ahola & Clair, 2000), and in turn, owing to the considerable advantages for health linked with engaging in physical activities and sports, motivation manifests as an intrinsic impetus, a fervent longing, or a potent compulsion originating from within oneself, propelling individuals toward the attainment of their objectives. Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which explains that autonomous actions lead to higher motivation and satisfaction, suggests that the motivation for engaging in sports is multifaceted, encompassing intrinsic, extrinsic, and amotivation components (Deci & Ryan, 2013; Vallerand, 1997). Intrinsic motivation is associated with internal satisfaction, pleasure, and a sense of mastery in a particular domain, driving individuals to engage in activities for the sheer enjoyment and personal fulfillment they provide (Deci & Ryan, 1985). This form of motivation fosters deeper engagement and persistence, as individuals are propelled by their inherent interest and the gratification derived from the activity itself, rather than external rewards or pressures. In contrast, extrinsic motivation is defined by external rewards or incentives (Mallet, 2005), where individuals engage in an activity primarily as a means to an end rather than for the intrinsic enjoyment of the activity itself. This implies that the commitment to the activity is driven by external goals rather than personal interest. More specifically, individuals engage in the activity with the intention of achieving tangible outcomes, such as acquiring external rewards or gaining recognition for their efforts. Lastly, amotivation, the lowest level of motivation, resembles learned helplessness and signifies a lack of motivation to participate (Abramson et al., 1978).

Social Support

Social support is articulated as the perceived or tangible assistance individuals receive from non-professional networks, including both formal support structures and informal interpersonal connections, which play a vital role in enhancing individuals' adaptive capacities and overall well-being (Gottlieb & Bergen, 2010). Social support can comprise both instrumental and emotional dimensions. Instrumental support entails the giving and receiving of practical assistance in daily tasks or during times of necessity. Within the sports domain, this type of support includes facilitating athletic endeavors by offering and receiving practical aid, such as providing training gear, arranging transportation for competitions, or assisting in physical rehabilitation. Such assistance goes beyond financial support, incorporating tangible resources and services that actively contribute to athletes' engagement in sports activities and aspirations. Promoting elderly involvement in han-gung might entail ensuring accessible training venues equipped, coordinating transportation logistics for attending practice sessions or events, and offering guidance on specialized physical routines aimed at enhancing their physical capabilities. On the flip side, emotional support encompasses the expression of emotions, empathy, and affirmation within interpersonal connections. This encompasses social interaction components like discussing personal issues or sentiments and offering advice on individual concerns (Rodrigues, Gierveld & Buz, 2014). Emotional support for elderly individuals engaging in han-gung revolves around fostering an environment of support characterized by shared emotions, empathetic understanding, and acknowledgment. This entails creating opportunities for open dialogue where seniors can articulate their emotions concerning their han-gung endeavors, demonstrating empathy by comprehending and acknowledging their obstacles and accomplishments, and validating the importance of their engagement and contributions to the sport. Furthermore, emotional support may involve nurturing social bonds among elderly participants, instilling a sense of community and camaraderie within the han-gung milieu, and providing encouragement and motivation to persevere in their involvement despite adversities.

Research Hypotheses Development

Previous studies consistently indicate that motivation is a key in improving attitudes. For example, Wang & Noh (2024) aimed to ascertain the motivational factors driving Chinese individuals to engage in camping activities, and assess the influence of perceived risk on camper attitudes and behavioral intentions and found that motivational factors, such as affinity for nature and escapism from daily routines significantly influence attitudes toward camping activities. Cho, Hussain & Kang (2023) explored the impact of intrinsic motivation on attitude and intention to participate in exercise and indicated that motivation directly affected attitude. According to Bae et al. (2023), customers’ motivations for employing serving robots significantly affect their attitudes and intentions to revisit restaurants, with the study showing a positive impact of these motivations on attitudes. Hence, we propose the following hypothesis:

H1: Participation motivation positively influences attitudes.

Existing literature steadily supports the significance of attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC in forming behavioral intentions. Wang et al. (2023) examined the psychosocial determinants of physical activity levels using a theoretical model based on the TPB, revealing that both attitude and PBC positively correlate with intention. Similarly, Seonwoo and Jeong (2021) investigated the structural relationships between mentoring, attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and intentions for a taekwondo career, finding that attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC have positive effects on intentions. Valois et al. (2020) aimed to deepen the understanding of motivations among older Canadians and found that the three TPB variables significantly influence intention. Hence, these observations contribute to the following hypotheses:

H2-1: Attitudes positively influence behavioral intention.

H2-2: Subjective norms positively influence behavioral intention.

H2-3: PBC positively influences behavioral intention.

Regarding the moderating role of social support in the relationships between attitudes and behavioral intention, subjective norms and behavioral intention, and PBC and behavioral intention, it has been previously discussed that attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC are anticipated to have a positive impact on behavioral intention. Prior research has also indicated that social support is crucial in fostering intention. For instance, Jeong and Kim (2019) examined the impact of social support on the intention to continue exercising and found that all sub-factors of social support positively influence intention. Conversely, there is a paucity of research exploring the relationships between social support and attitudes, subjective norms, and PBC. Therefore, we propose the following hypotheses:

H3-1: Social support moderates the influence of attitudes on behavioral intention.

H3-2: Social support moderates the influence of subjective norms on behavioral intention.

H3-3: Social support moderates the influence of PBC on behavioral intention.

After reviewing the available literature, we utilized the conceptual framework depicted in Fig. 1.

Sampling and Date collection

Our survey targeted amateur han-gung athletes who took part in ten senior han-gung tournaments in South Korea from September 2023 to February 2024. We aimed to study participants aged 60 and over, allowing them to join freely. We provided detailed explanations of the study's goals and methods, and only those who consented were surveyed. The participants filled out self-administered questionnaires. We used convenience sampling to distribute 450 questionnaires, obtaining 406 valid responses. The demographic information collected included gender (71.4% male, 28.6% female), income levels (25.9% under $20,900, 41.4% between $20,901 and $41,800, 19% between $41,801 and $62,700, and 13.8% over $62,701), and education levels (24.6% high school graduates, 26.8% associate degree holders, 42.1% university graduates, and 6.4% with graduate degrees).

Measure

The survey included questions on participation motivation, attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, behavioral intention, and social support. All measurement scales were derived from established academic sources and had been validated in previous studies. We measured participation motivation with three items from Lee & Hwang (2023); attitudes with three items from Ajzen (2006), Kim et al. (2020), and Seonwoo and Jeong (2021); subjective norms with three items from Ajzen (2006) and Yu and Jeong (2022); PBC with three items from Ajzen (1991) and Perugini and Bagozzi (2001); behavioral intention with three items from Seonwoo and Jeong (2021) and Yu and Jeong (2022); and social support with three items from Park (1985).

Participants responded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The instruments were reviewed for content validity by a panel of three experts in sports sociology, who assessed each item's relevance, representativeness, and clarity. Their feedback was used to refine the initial questionnaire, resulting in the final version distributed. Additionally, the study received approval from the university's Institutional Review Board before the survey was administered.

Validity and Reliability

This study utilized confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with maximum likelihood estimation in AMOS to validate the dimensional structure of the measurement model. All goodness-of-fit indices for the CFA met the recommended thresholds outlined by Hooper, Coughlan & Mullen (2008) (χ²/df = 2.829, normed fit index [NFI] = 0.926, incremental fit index [IFI] = 0.944, tucker–lewis index [TLI] = 0.922, comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.944, and root-mean-square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.074).

To confirm convergent validity, factor loadings, construct reliability (CR), and averaged variance extracted (AVE) were computed using the measurement model. As illustrated in Table 1, all factor loadings (ranging from 0.743 to 0.921) were statistically significant (p < .001) and exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.50, as proposed by Hair et al. (2010). CR values (ranging from 0.932 to 0.949) exceeded the minimum requirement of 0.7, and all AVE values (ranging from 0.807 to 0.860) surpassed the suggested threshold of 0.5, in accordance with Tabachnick and Fidell's (2007) guidelines. Hence, convergent validity was established with all CR and AVE values meeting the specified thresholds.

Table 1

*Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results*
Scale items	Standardized loadings	CR		AVE	Cronbach’s $\:{\alpha\:}$
Participation Motivation		0.943		0.807	0.874
After practicing Han-gung, I gain confidence in everything.	0.773
It is because of the refreshing feeling I get after I practice Han-gung.	0.901
Because if I practice Han-gung well, I can get attention from other friends.	0.743
Because I can hang out with other people comfortably when I practice Han-gung.	0.916
Attitudes		0.932		0.821	0.906
Playing Han-gung is extremely unpleasant – extremely pleasant.	0.833
Playing Han-gung is extremely unattractive – extremely attractive.	0.876
Playing Han-gung is extremely worthless - extremely valuable.	0.904
Subjective norms			0.941	0.842	0.898
The people in my life (e.g., family/friends) would be in favor of me practicing Han-gung.	0.796
The people in my life (e.g., family/friends) would support me practicing Han-gung.	0.903
The people in my life (e.g., family/friends) would encourage me to do well in Han-gung.	0.913
Perceived behavior control		0.937		0.833	0.915
I have the freedom to decide when and how to practice Han-gung.	0.897
I have the ability to schedule my practice sessions according to my preferences.	0.878
I feel confident in my ability to manage my Han-gung practice effectively.	0.881
Behavioral intention		0.949		0.860	0.940
I will try to continue practicing Han-gung.	0.921
I intend to continue practicing Han-gung.	0.919
I am willing to devote money and time to practicing Han-gung.	0.916
Social Support			0.922	0.797	0.830
The people around me show interest in my practicing Han-gung.	0.870
The people around me do not hesitate to praise me when I do well in practicing Han-gung.	0.844
The people around me are willing to help if I encounter any difficulties while practicing Han-gung.	0.790
Note. CR = composite reliability; AVE = average variance extracted; x²/df = 2.829; normed fit index (NFI) = 0.913; incremental fit index (IFI) = 0.931; tucker–lewis index (TLI) = 0.903; comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.930, and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) = 0.074

Table 2

*Correlations between Constructs*
Construct	Participation motivation	Attitudes	Subjective norms	PBC	Behavioral intention	Social support
Participation motivation	0.900
Attitudes	0.670^**	0.906
Subjective norms	0.552^**	0.628^**	0.918
PBC	0.575^**	0.632^**	0.587^**	0.913
Behavioral intention	0.612^**	0.692^**	0.564^**	0.679^**	0.927
Social support	0.608^**	0.528^**	0.632^**	0.500^**	0.464^**	0.893

^** p < .01.

To ensure satisfactory discriminant validity, diagonal elements in Table 2 were required to be greater than the off-diagonal elements, a condition which was satisfied. Comparison of all correlation coefficients with the square roots of AVE indicated satisfactory discriminant validity.

Reliability assessments, evaluated using Cronbach's alpha for participation motivation, attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, behavioral intention, and social support constructs (ranging from 0.874 to 0.940), all surpassed the recommended threshold of 0.7, confirming the robustness of the measurement instruments as per Fornell and Larcker's (1981) guidelines (refer to Table 1 for details).

Model fit and Structural Model

We employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to explore the proposed relationships. All indicators evaluating the model's fit indicated its adequacy (χ²/df = 2.863, NFI = 0.916, IFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.912, CFI = 0.934, RMSEA = 0.077).

This model served as the basis for testing Hypotheses 1, 2 − 1, 2–2, and 2–3. As shown in Fig. 2, our research confirms a statistically significant link between participation motivation and attitudes (H1), with a coefficient of 0.741 (p < .001). H2-1 is validated, as the findings reveal a strongly positive correlation between attitudes and behavioral intention, evidenced by a coefficient of 0.787 (p < .001). In contrast, subjective norms did not show a positive association with behavioral intention, leading to the rejection of H2-2. Finally, a significant correlation is found between PBC and behavioral intention (0.211, p < .001), thus supporting H2-3.

Tests of Moderating effect

As forecasted in H3-1, both attitudes (Z = 24.07, p < .001) and social support (Z = 2.29, p < .05) had significant effects on behavioral intention. However, their interaction did not significantly influence behavioral intention. Thus, it can be inferred that social support does not moderate the relationship between attitudes and behavioral intention. Therefore, Hypothesis 3 − 1 is not supported.

As anticipated in H3-2, subjective norms (Z = 10.54, p < .001) and social support (Z = 5.28, p < .05) significantly impacted behavioral intention. Furthermore, their interaction (Z = 2.15, p < .05) also had a significant effect on behavioral intention, thus validating H4-2 (refer to Table 3). The independent variable, the moderator, and their interaction all exhibited positive effects, indicating an enhancing influence. Hence, a simple slope analysis was conducted to explore the variations in the slope between the independent and dependent variables across three levels of the moderator: low (mean − 1SD), average, and high social support (mean + 1SD). The findings are displayed in Table 3. The analysis indicated that social support significantly influenced behavioral intention across all three groups (average, low, and high social support) (Z = 10.51, p < .001; Z = 8.50, p < .001; Z = 7.83, p < .001).

As expected in H3-3, both PBC (Z = 15.84, p < .001) and social support (Z = 4.38, p < .001) significantly affected behavioral intention. However, their interaction did not show a significant impact on behavioral intention. Therefore, it can be concluded that social support does not moderate the relationship between PBC and behavioral intention. Hence, Hypothesis 4 − 3 is not supported.

Table 3

*Moderating Effect of Social Support*
Estimation type	Effect	Estimate	SE	Z	p
Moderation	Attitudes	0.897	0.04	24.07	< .001
	Social support	0.100	0.04	2.29	0.022
	Attitudes × Social support	0.047	0.06	0.84	0.401
Moderation	Subjective norms	0.605	0.06	10.54	< .001
	Social support	0.307	0.06	5.28	< .001
	Subjective norms × Social support	0.176	0.08	2.15	0.031
Simple slope	Average	0.604	0.06	10.51	< .001
	Low (− 1SD)	0.496	0.06	8.50	< .001
	High (+ 1SD)	0.712	0.09	7.83	< .001
Moderation	PBC	0.684	0.04	15.84	< .001
	Social support	0.226	0.05	4.38	< .001
	PBC × Social support	-0.056	0.06	-0.84	0.398
Note. SD = standard deviation; SE = standard error.

Theoretical implications

Our study has solidified the understanding that participation motivation holds significant sway over the attitudes of elderly participants. This emphasizes the essential role played by participation motivation in shaping attitudes, a concept supported by earlier investigations (Bae et al., 2023; Cho et al., 2023; Wang & Noh, 2024), thus broadening and enhancing the existing knowledge base. Moreover, our examination of the influence of participation motivation on elderly attitudes unveils its intimate association with social connectivity, self-realization, and health promotion. These findings underscore the critical impact of these factors on the engagement in activities and subsequent attitude formation among the elderly. By advancing our understanding of the relationship between participation motivation and attitudes among elderly participants, our research provides valuable insights for the development and assessment of welfare and social participation programs tailored specifically for this demographic. This understanding is particularly relevant in the context of an aging population, where fostering positive attitudes and active participation can lead to improved quality of life and reduced social isolation. Therefore, it is crucial for Han-gung officials to recognize the pivotal role of participation motivation among elderly individuals and integrate these insights into the design and implementation of programs that encourage sustained involvement and engagement.

Our analysis has demonstrated that attitudes significantly influence behavioral intentions. This finding highlights that the attitudes of elderly participants in Han-gung are critical in shaping their intentions to engage in related activities. Previous studies have also consistently supported the finding that attitudes are a significant predictor of behavioral intention (Seonwoo & Jeong, 2021; Wang et al.). Several factors explain why attitudes impact behavioral intentions. For elderly participants in Han-gung, attitudes are shaped by personal enjoyment, perceived benefits, and social validation. Positive attitudes are formed when participants find the activities enjoyable, perceive tangible benefits (such as improved health and social interactions), and receive positive feedback from peers and family. These factors collectively enhance their motivation and intention to continue participating in Han-gung activities. Our research offers two significant contributions to the field. Firstly, it highlights the greater influence of attitudes over perceived behavioral control (PBC) in determining behavioral intentions. This underscores the necessity of fostering positive attitudes to enhance participation rates among the elderly in sports and recreational activities. Secondly, our findings underscore the importance of attitudes in influencing behavioral intentions in elderly sports. This suggests that interventions aimed at increasing elderly participation in sports should focus on attitude enhancement strategies. Hence, it is crucial for practitioners and policymakers to recognize the importance of attitudes in shaping behavioral intentions.

Our research demonstrated that subjective norms did not significantly influence the behavioral intentions of elderly participants in Han-gung activities. This result contrasts with our initial expectations and hypotheses, which were based on previous studies showing a strong relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention across various populations. One explanation for this discrepancy could be the unique demographic focus of our study. Unlike previous research that included a broad age range, our study focused exclusively on older adults. It is possible that social influences captured by subjective norms are less influential for the elderly compared to younger cohorts. Older adults may give more weight to their own preferences and past experiences over others' opinions and expectations when forming their behavioral intentions. Furthermore, the cultural context and nature of Han-gung as a new sport could contribute to this finding. Han-gung may appeal to older adults more as a form of physical activity and social interaction, driven by personal health goals rather than conforming to social expectations. The elderly may engage in these activities primarily for personal fulfillment and enjoyment rather than due to social pressures. As a result, our findings suggest that subjective norms might have a less significant impact on the behavioral intention of older adults. This highlights the necessity for a nuanced understanding of how demographic factors and the nature of the activity can influence the role of social norms on behavior.

Social support was found to moderate the path between subjective norms and behavioral intention. However, in this study, the SEM analysis indicated that subjective norms did not have a direct effect on behavioral intention, though the moderating effect of social support was still present. The moderation effect of social support on the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention can be explained by the increased reinforcement and encouragement provided by social networks. When elderly individuals perceive high levels of social support, they are more likely to align their behavior with the expectations of their social circles. This external reinforcement boosts their motivation to engage in Han-gung practice, as they feel supported and validated by their peers, family, and community. The presence of social support can enhance the influence of subjective norms by making individuals more receptive to social expectations and more committed to meeting these expectations through their behavioral intentions. Given the significant role of social support in moderating the relationship between subjective norms and behavioral intention, it is crucial for Han-gung practitioners, organizers, and policymakers to foster environments that enhance social support. By emphasizing social support, these stakeholders can effectively increase elderly engagement in Han-gung practice, thereby promoting greater participation and adherence to the activity.

On the other hand, the moderation effect of social support was not observed in the paths between attitude and behavioral intention, and perceived behavioral control (PBC) and behavioral intention. The absence of a moderation effect of social support in the paths from attitude to behavioral intention and PBC to behavioral intention might be due to the intrinsic nature of these constructs. Attitudes and perceived behavioral control are more individually centered and are shaped by personal beliefs and self-efficacy rather than external social factors. While social support can influence subjective norms by shaping perceptions of social expectations, it may have a limited impact on changing personal attitudes or the perception of one's own control over the behavior. Therefore, the direct effects of attitude and PBC on behavioral intention remain unaffected by the levels of social support in this study. However, it is possible that these effects could vary with different populations or age groups, where social support might play a more significant role.

Practical implications

This study offers significant insights into the influence of participation motivation, attitudes, subjective norms, PBC, and social support on the elderly's engagement in Han-gung.

To boost participation motivation, programs should emphasize the personal benefits of Han-gung, such as enhanced physical health, mental well-being, and social connectivity. Activities tailored to the interests and preferences of older adults can increase their intrinsic motivation to participate. Effective communication strategies are essential to convey the unique advantages of Han-gung, highlighting its fun, health benefits, and social aspects. Success stories and testimonials from current participants can also serve to motivate potential participants.

Creating positive attitudes towards Han-gung is vital for sustained engagement. Organizers should foster a supportive and enjoyable environment that reinforces positive experiences and outcomes. This can be achieved through regular feedback, encouragement, and recognition of participants' progress. Providing information on the health benefits and enjoyment of Han-gung can help shape positive attitudes. Workshops, demonstrations, and informational sessions can educate older adults about the importance of staying active and the specific benefits of Han-gung.

Enhancing PBC involves making Han-gung easily accessible and providing the necessary support for participation. This includes ensuring that facilities are elder-friendly, offering beginner sessions, and providing assistance with equipment and techniques. Organizing workshops that focus on building the skills and confidence needed for Han-gung can empower older adults to feel more in control of their ability to participate. Training sessions that gradually increase in difficulty can help participants build their confidence and competence.

Establishing peer support groups and encouraging social interactions among participants can enhance the experience and motivation to continue participating in Han-gung. Social events, group competitions, and team-based activities can foster a sense of community and mutual support. Encouraging family members and caregivers to support and participate in Han-gung activities can provide additional motivation for older adults. Family involvement can reinforce the importance of physical activity and provide emotional and logistical support.

These practical implications offer a comprehensive framework for enhancing participation in Han-gung among older adults. By implementing these strategies, stakeholders can effectively promote sustained involvement in Han-gung, thereby improving the physical, mental, and social well-being of the elderly population.

Limitation and Future Research

This study has several limitations that future research can address to broaden its applicability and deepen its insights. Firstly, to determine the model's applicability across different cultural contexts, future studies should include a wider range of geographical regions, such as North America, Europe, and beyond. This would help to reveal how regional and cultural variations affect the study’s findings and enhance the model's generalizability. Secondly, while this research sheds light on factors influencing participant behavior, it does not cover all possible variables that might impact attitudes. Future research should explore additional factors, such as perceived benefits and past experiences, which could play crucial roles. Thirdly, given the evolving views on PBC, it is important to investigate its moderating effects. PBC could potentially moderate the effects of attitudes on behavioral intentions and subjective norms on behavioral intentions. Exploring these moderating effects could provide a more nuanced understanding of how PBC impacts these relationships in various contexts. Lastly, to better understand the psychological and behavioral dynamics of Han-gung participants, employing qualitative or mixed-method approaches in future studies would be beneficial. Such methods could offer a more detailed exploration of participants' motivations, experiences, and the factors driving their participation in Han-gung.

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

This study was conducted with the approval of the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Korea National University of Transportation (Approval Number: KNUT IRB 2023-11). The requirement for written consent was waived by the IRB, as participants' consent was obtained through an alternative method approved by the IRB.

Funding

This study received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors

Author Contribution

J.G.Y. (Jae-gu Yu) conducted the research, collected the data, and performed the initial data analysis. Y.J. (Yunduk Jeong) provided the theoretical framework, supervised the research process, and contributed to the interpretation of the data. Y.J. wrote the main manuscript text with significant input and revisions from J.G.Y. Both authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.

Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available due to [specific reason, e.g., privacy concerns, confidentiality agreements], but can be made available by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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No competing interests reported.

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Impact of Motivation and Social Support on Elderly Engagement in Korean Archery: A TPB Approach

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Version 1

Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Theoretical Background and Research Hypotheses

Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behavior

Participation Motivation

Social Support

Research Hypotheses Development

Method

Sampling and Date collection

Measure

Validity and Reliability

Results

Model fit and Structural Model

Tests of Moderating effect

Discussion and Conclusion

Theoretical implications

Practical implications

Limitation and Future Research

Declarations

Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate

Funding

Author Contribution

Data Availability

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1