Thermal effects on the biological parameters of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on bean

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4930464/v1

Download PDF

Research Article

Thermal effects on the biological parameters of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on bean

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4930464/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

The cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora is a polyphagous specie that has spread all over the world. The aim of this study was to investigate the thermal effects on the developmental period times, longevity, and fecundity of apterous females of A. craccivora. The experiment was conducted under the effects of four temperature regimes, which are 16°C, 20°C, 24°C, and 28°C, with 65 ± 5% relative humidity (RH) and a photoperiod of long-day 16:8 (L:D) h. After transferring the nymphs developed successfully until the adult stage at all temperature regimes. The developmental periods of the immature A. craccivora ranged from 10.6 days at 16°C to 5.0 days at 28°C. The nymph viability and survival were longer at 24°C than the others. However, at the constant temperature of 28°C, the death ratio was higher than others at the immature stages of A. craccivora. The lower developmental threshold for cowpea aphid was estimated at 1.77°C and 66.79 degree-days (DD) at the first instar until adult. The average longevity of adult females decreased from 22.2 days at 16°C to 10.8 days at 28°C. The net reproduction rate per female was 46.97 at 24°C and 26.93 to 28°C. The largest intrinsic rates of increase (r_m= 0.367) occurred at 28°C, the smallest at 16°C (r_m= 0.177). It was obvious that temperatures over 28°C provided a good development, increased-mortality at the nymphal stages, reduced adult longevity, and diminished fecundity. The optimal growth variation of A. craccivora on beans was 20°C-24°C.

Adult longevity

life table

nymphal stage

nonlinear function

thermal resistance

Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) are Cosmopolitan and important pests in agroecosystems, and among the most devastating pests in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions (Dedryver et al., 2010). From this family, the cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora represents one of the most crucial pests that affect the early stages of its host in Africa, Asia, and America and causes intensive losses in horticultural crops as well as in forestry (Obeng-Ofori., 2007; Ou&edraogo et al., 2018). Parthenogenetic reproduction is the most disastrous damage caused by A. craccivora. The adult winged (alatae) causes less damage, but is primarily responsible for the infestation of fields with its ability to fly from one place to another. The adults and nymphs feed on the undersurface of young leaves, stem tissues, growing tips, petioles, flowers, and fresh pods by piercing-sucking sap (Togola et al., 2017). Throughout A. craccivora’s direct and indirect damage, A. craccivora directly feeds by sucking sap and releases the honeydew that creates the fumagine (sooty mold) on leaves reducing the plant’s photosynthetic capacity. The injection of bioactive substances through its saliva interacts with plant physiology disturbing growth and development. Indirect damage is the result of virus transmission (Ebert & Cartwright, 1997; Blackman & Eastop, 2000). Plant damages increase because aphid as a virus host is responsible for spreading viral diseases (Aldryhim & Khalil, 1993; Smith & Boyko, 2007). such as beans necrotic yellows virus, broad bean yellow mosaic virus, and bean leaf roll virus (Weigand & Bishara, 1991). The secretion of aphid's honeydew reduces photosynthesis process by releasing sooty mold on plant leaves (Klingler et al., 2001; Smith & Boyko, 2007).

Throughout all aforementioned aphid damages, abiotic and biotic factors significantly play a predominant role in aphid biological life. Particularly abiotic factors affect aphids by modifying their life cycle. Aphids are ectothermic organisms, abiotic factors greatly affect their development and growth until death. The reported data on the developmental rate and fecundity of the cowpea aphid at several temperature regimes showed different biological variations in Egypt (Hafiz., 2006), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Soffan & Aldawood, 2014), China (Zhaozhi et al., 2017), Korea (Cho et al., 2018), Japon (MOUSA et al., 2019). The developmental and fecundity data on all aphid species, from one region to another one, should be taken with considerable prudence for different crops because aphid life table varies with alternating weather conditions. The findings on A. craccivora population parameters can be applied to developing IPM tactics, particularly in monitoring and simplifying the control methods of cowpea aphid in the Eastern Mediterranean region of Turkiye (Kersting et al., 1999; Satar et al., 2005).The aim of this work was to investigate some life table parameters on bean aphid A. craccivora at different temperature regimes on bean leaves under laboratory conditions.

Plant culture: Pinto bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) leaves were collected from the Department of Plant Protection field experimental in March 2020 at Adana, Saricam, Turkiye. After collecting, the samples were transported to the lab and washed below flowing water for 5–10 minutes before utilizing. Every five days, the old leaves were substituted with new leaves for better feeding of the individual insects.

Insect culture: The cowpea aphid adult (A. craccivora) were collected from acacia trees at Cukurova University area in Adana/Turkey. Average of 50 adults were reared inside 5 cages on common bean plants (F. vulgaris L.) at 24 ± 1°C, 65 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of long-day 16:8 h (L:D). The aphid fabae cages were established on fava bean seedlings and maintained for five generations prior to the start of the experiment, to recuperate the net generation from the maternal effects reflecting recent rearing conditions. The food, A. craccivora was, supplied daily to maintain the population stock (Fig. 1).

Experimental design

The experiment was conducted with randomly selected apterous females from stock cage culture and individually transferred to the undersurface of bean leaves on plastic Petri dishes (both 5 cm in diameter). For each level of temperature, a total of 4 replications of 10 Petri dishes per block with first instar nymph were placed inside an incubator. 40 Petri dishes were prepared with a wetted cotton pad (0.5 cm) and placed under the leaves, such that the entire surface was covered to avoid them from drying. After that, 40 newborn aphids were carefully taken with a paintbrush from master stock to the new Petri dishes. The moisture content of the cotton wool in the Petri dishes was maintained daily and every 3–5 days the aphids were transferred to the new bean leaves disks. The fresh used leaves were taken from the field and transported to the citrus Entomology laboratory at Çukurova University.

The experiments were conducted on the effect of four constant temperature regimes (16, 20, 24, and 28 ± 1°C) and 60 ± 5% relative humidity (RH) and with a photoperiod of 16:8 (L: D) 24h. For each temperature, the experiment was started with 40 first instar transferred nymphs. Every 24 h the nymphal development was recorded until the adult stage. After the adult period, the number of nymph and survival produced by the mother aphid were registered until the death of all adults of A. craccivora.

Statistical analysis

Developmental time and reproductive performance of A. craccivora were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA). The normality of data was checked through Shapiro wilk test. Differences in developmental time, longevity, and reproduction were calculated for each constant temperature. Multiple comparisons were tested using Turkey’s HSD multiple range test (P = 0.05) on significant variables. For each constant temperature, a curve was plotted with the Kaplan-Meier product limit technique. Population growth rates were computed from the equation of Lotka (Birch, 1948) (Eq. 1).

1 = Σ e- * l* m (1)

In which: x = age is days (including immature stages), r = intrinsic rate of increase,

l_x= age-specific survival (including the immature mortality), m_x = age-specific number of female offspring. After "r" was computed for the original data (r_all), differences among r_m-values were tested for significance differences by estimating variances through the jackknife method (Meyer et al., 1986). The jackknife pseudo-value r_j was computed for the n samples using the following (Eq. 2)

r_j = n* r_all - (n-1) * r_i (2)

The mean of "n" jackknife pseudo-values for each treatment was subjected to analysis of variance. Tukey’s HSD multiple range test was used to compare mean growth rates at different temperature regimes (P < 0.05). Because low probability levels were used, there was no concern about inflation of experiment-wise error rates (Jones, 1984). Each of the above mentioned analysis were conducted using Statgraphics software package version 11.5, SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL (Nie et al. 1975)

The development rates of the individuals reared under the different temperature levels were calculated by linear regression (y = a ± bx). The mean (22°C) of the various temperatures at 16, 20, 24, and 28°C was used in the regression analysis. Afterward, the development threshold (-a/b) and thermal constant (the total effective temperature required to complete a generation, 1/b) of A. craccivora were estimated with linear regression equation (Campbel et al., 1974).

The developmental time of the cowpea aphid, A. craccivora significantly decreased with the increasing constant temperatures ranging from 5.0 days at 28°C to 10.6 days at 16°C (F = 81.786; fd = 3; P < 0.05) (Table.1). The linear regression analysis applied to the developmental point within the 16°C-28°C range. The temperature range increased linearly with increasing temperature (r _(T) = 0.015x – 0.0263; R² = 0.7959; F = 245.68; fd = 3; P < 0.05) (Fig. 1). The lower developmental threshold (LT) and thermal constant (K) of A. craccivora nymph stages were estimated as 1.77°C and required 66.79 degree-days (DD) for the first instar to become adult (Table. 3). The longevity was significant longer at 16°C (F = 17.858; fd = 3; P < 0.05) (Table. 2). compared to any other temperature regime tested. The constant temperature for the highest offspring days occurred at 24°C (F = 2.74; fd = 3; P < 0.05) (Table 3). The highest average value of fecundity per reproduction day occurred at 24°C (F = 1.811; fd = 3; P < 0.05), and the lowest was at 16°C (Table. 2).

Table 1

Development times (days ± SE) of *Aphis craccivora* on bean (*Phaseolus Vulgaris*. L) at five constant temperatures, 65 ± 5% RH, and a photoperiod of 16:00(L: D) h.
Temperature (°C)	n	I. Nymph period	II. Nymph period	III. Nymph period	IV. Nymph period	Total dev.
16°C	40	2.7 ± 0.14a	2.6 ± 0.16a	2.4 ± 0.31a	3.2 ± 0.28a	10.6 ± 0.42a
20°C	40	1.4 ± 0.08b	1.6 ± 0.12b	1.1 ± 0.10 c	1.7 ± 0.17b	6.0 ± 0.30b
24°C	40	1.0 ± 0.00c	1.1 ± 0.04c	1.8 ± 0.07ab	1.4 ± 0.10b	5.2 ± 0.16b
28°C	40	1.1 ± 0.05c	1.0 ± 0.06c	1.5 ± 0.12 bc	1.3 ± 0.12b	5.0 ± 0.17b
Significant differences between means (P < 0.05 and *P < 0.01) are expressed by different letters (a–b). The letters compare values in the same column

Table 2

Pre-oviposition, oviposition, post- oviposition, longevity, life span, and number of offspring of *Aphis craccivora* adult female individuals on bean (mean ± SE)
Temp (°C)	Pre-Oviposition (day)	Oviposition (day)	Post-Oviposition (day)	Longevity (day)	Life span (day)	Offspring (Aphid)
16	1.17 ± 0.2a	8.95 ± 1.5a	0.25 ± 0.1	22.2 ± 1.71a	11.6 ± 1.75a	32.1 ± 5.4
20	0.85 ± 0.1ab	6.77 ± 0.9ab	0.35 ± 0.4	14.1 ± 1.29b	8.1 ± 1.20ab	40.8 ± 6.2
24	0.45 ± 0.1b	6.32 ± 0.4ab	0.42 ± 0.1	12.4 ± 0.49b	7.2 ± 0.50b	45.2 ± 3.4
28	0.55 ± 0.1b	5.07 ± 0.8b	0.45 ± 0.1	10.8 ± 0.89b	5.8 ± 0.86b	26.9 ± 4.5
Significant differences between means (^P < 0.05 and ^*P < 0.01) are expressed by different letters (a–c). The letters compare values in the same column.

Table 3

Offspring/day, death ratio (%), wingless adults (n), wing adults (n), generation time (T0), net reproduction (Ro), and intrinsic rate of increase (rm) of *Aphis craccivora* on bean leaf discs at five temperature levels
Temp (°C)	N	Offspring reproductıon day(mean ± SE)	Death ratio (%)	Wingless adults(N)	Wing Adult(N)	(T₀)	(R₀)	(r_m)
16	40	3.6 ± 1.77	20	36	4	22.287	32.175	0.177
20	40	4.2 ± 0.47	20	40	3	13.294	40.850	0.321
24	40	6.5 ± 0.45	5	38	4	13.174	46.975	0.352
28	40	4.1 ± 0.45	28	35	5	10.191	26.925	0.367
Aphis craccivora (a) fourth nymphal stage, (b) Aphid exoskeletons, skins or exuviae, (c) (adult stage, and (d) first nymphal stage.

The highest % mortality rate was observed at 28°C, the cause of this could be vulnerability to high temperature at the first nymphal stage (Table. 3). The survival rate of A. craccivora adults sharply diminished after the peak of nymph production at higher temperatures. More wingless adults were observed at 20°C. However, at 28°C there were more winged or alate (Table 3). According to the biological development of aphid species at warm temperatures, the possibility of developing winged individuals is higher. At 16°C and 20°C were relatively long to the post oviposition compare to the other temperatures. (Fig. 3) (Table. 2). The offspring number of reproduction per period of the day varied between 3.6 days (16 ^oC) and 6.5 days (24°C) (Table. 3). Augmenting the temperatures resulted in shorter generation times (T_o) of A. craccivora with 22.3 days at 16°C and 10.2 at 28°C (Table 3). The net reproduction rate (R_o) was highest at 24°C (64.97 aphids/aphid) and the lowest at 28°C (26.93 aphids/aphid) (Table. 3). The population of A. craccivora resulted in higher per capita rate of population growth, as mentioned the intrinsic rate of increase at 28°C (0.367 aphids/aphid per day) compare to the lower at 16°C (0.177 aphids/aphid) (Table 3).

Developmental rate (r) of A. craccivora at four constant temperatures and all of them alternated (variation cycle) were all fitted with a linear regression equation the developmental rate ranged between 16°C − 28°C (Table. 4). The mean alternating temperatures were used to fit the linear regression equation. The developmental time of A. craccivora increased linearly with an increase of temperature. Development rates of A. craccivora at four temperature regimes were fitted to the linear regression equation y = a ± bx (Table. 4). The outcomes of the regression model were fitted separately for the obtained data from females of A. craccivora at developmental rate. The equation of females was calculated as developmental rate for female aphids was estimated as Y = 0.015 x -0.0263 (R2 = 0.97; P ≤ 0.05) from the first instar to the developmental stage and adult stage (Fig. 2). Through these equations, the development thresholds and thermal constants were calculated.

In the ecosystem, insects are not subjected to constant or alternating temperatures. However, laboratory conditions experiments can provide valuable insight into the population dynamics of aphids. The findings reported here clearly show the effects of the temperatures on developmental time, death ratio, longevity, and fecundity of A. craccivora. Aphid species are small ectothermic insects, have an undeniable relationship with temperatures in nature. Recall that temperature influences multiple aspects of insect biology, such as the metabolism system and developmental rate to the timing and level of insect activities. Temperatures beyond the thresholds of development for a given insect can slow growth, and extreme temperatures can kill members of the insect population. It is logical then to expect that temperature fluctuations can cause changes to insect biology. In this study, we have discussed how temperature alternations affect insect biology. Some biological parameters of Aphis craccivora are discussed. The maximum temperature for the development of A. craccivora was 28°C (mean = 5.0 days; F = 81.78; P = 0.05 ) but other literature reported 30°C (Cho et al., 2018; Kuo, M. H. & Chen, 2004), and at 29.4°C (Berberet et al., 2009; Girão et al., 2019) on bean plants. The results correlates with the degree of the temperature in which ectothermic animals that develop under warm conditions tend to grow faster, and mature earlier. On the other hand, are slow in maturation compared to similar animals that develop under cool conditions. The pre-oviposition period of times with a gradual decreasing constant temperature delays fecundity appearance. From the lower 16°C to the higher 24°C temperature similar to 16 ^oC and 25°C by(Cho et al., 2018; Girão et al., 2019). Oviposition days depends greatly on the area in which the insect is evaluated by using food and weather resources. Normally at both, low and high tolerated temperatures, the insects can take a long time for reproduction for example, from 16°C to 28°C, (mean = 8.95, 5.07; F = 2.519; P = 0.05), respectively. The same tendency at 15, 20, 25°C was reported according to (Cho and et al., 2018) and 18, 22, 25, 28°C. (Girão et al., 2019).

The Post-oviposition period of time was at 16°C (mean day = 2.05; F = 2.519; P = 0.05) if it is below the lowest relative temperature for good reproduction affects, the time after the offspring period becomes longer than the adaptive temperatures reported at 18, 22, 25, and 28°C (Girão, et al., 2019) respectively, (mean days = 1.2, 0.8, 0.8, and 0.2). Longevity increases with the decrease constant temperatures inversely decreases with their increase as we can see at 16°C ( 22.2 days) and at 28°C (10.8 days) although this literature, approximately, the same constant temperatures were reported at 18°C and 28°C by (Girão et al., 2019).

Although there were differences between the results presented in this research within the life span of A. craccivora. The temperature regimes are shown some significant differences from the highest to lowest, 28°C and 16°C (Mean/days) 5.8, 11.6, F = 4.340; P = 0.05), respectively. The mean value between the temperatures on life span presented a similarity within them, from 28°C the lowest at 16°C to the highest at 28°C. these were noticed that there were not any significant differences. Those involve that the range of these temperatures there is accessible for good survival for aphid species. (Table 2). In general, these observations established the inverse proportional relationship between oviposition periods and immature stages produced per female per day in the thermal range of 16 to 28ºC, compared to the results presented by(Berberet et al., 2009; Girão et al., 2019).

Table 4

Regression equations and parameters of development period rates of *Aphis craccivora* on bean leaves under different constant temperatures
Parameters	Nymph I	Nymph II	Nymph III	Nymph IV	Adult
Equation of regression	y = -0.13x + 4.4 R² =0.730	y= -0.13x + 4.49 R² = 0.873	y = -0.05x + 2.8 R² = 0.222	y = -0.15x + 5.2 R² = 0.769	y = -0.44x + 16.38 R² = 0.743
Thermal constant (1/a) (°C day)	7.69	7.54	20	6.67	2.27
Development threshold (b/a) (°C)	260.08	225.50	1120	231.22	84.51

Table 5

ANOVA’s table of some biological parameters of *Aphis craccivora* at five temperature regimes on the bean. Statistically, if P-value is inferior to 0.05, it means that there are significant differences between parameters in this study. As we can see only on offspring per day, post-oviposition, and lifespan, there is any difference significant, because p-value > 0.05.
Biological parameters	Between Groups	Sum of Squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig.
Lifespan		726.069	3	242.023	4.340	0.006‘**’
Offspring		8192.725	3	2730.908	2.744	0.045 ʿ*ʾ
Longevity		3043.850	3	1014.617	17.858	0.000***
N1		79.269	3	26.423	80.311	0.000***
N2		69.525	3	23.175	44.938	0.000***
N3		35.469	3	11.823	9.221	0.000***
N4		93.869	3	31.290	22.590	0.000***
Total-development		824.269	3	274.756	81.786	0.000***
Pre-oviposition		12.819	3	4.273	5.024	0.002‘**’
Oviposition		312.919	3	104.306	2.519	0.060‘*’
Post-oviposition		85.119	3	28.373	10.715	0.000***
Offspring/day		205.626	3	68.542	1.811	0.147‘.’

According to the results, there are a lot of possibilities for adaptation between several studied aphid populations. For example, the variations observed on thermal constants development based on the suitable temperature for black-aphid on the bean might be explained in part about the functional theory of its life which relates with the highest value for a development threshold and the smallest value for total thermal requirement as expected for species more adapted to the tropical regions and also temperate regions (Trudgill & Perry, 1994; Brown et al., 1995).

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

This article does not contain any studies with human participants performed by any of the authors.

Authors‘ contributions

RD and SS conceived, designed and performed research. Both of the authors analyzed data, and wrote the maniscript. Both authors read and aprouved the manuscript.

Funding

The study was supported by Cukurova University. (Grants Code: FYL-2020-12688).

Author Contribution

Rochelyn Dona (ab), Serda Satar (cb)

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the team management of the Project Development and Coordination Unit. This research was part of the Master’s degree thesis of Rochelyn DONA was funded by Project Development and Coordination Unit from Çukurova University (Grants Code: FYL-2020-12688).

Aldryhim, Y., & Khalil, A. (1993). Influence of temperature and day length on population development of Aphis gossypii on Cucurbita pepo. Entomol. Exp. Appl, 67, 167–172.
Berberet, R. C., Giles, K. L., Zarrabi, A. A., & Payton, M. E. (2009). Development, reproduction, and within-plant infestation patterns of Aphis craccivora (Homoptera: Aphididae) on alfalfa. Environmental Entomology, 38, 1765–1771.
Blackman, R. L., & Eastop, V. F. (2000). Aphids on the world’s crops. An Identification and Information Guide, No. Ed. 2.
Brown, D. J. F., Robertson, W. M., & Trudgill, D. L. (1995). Transmission of viruses by plant nematodes. Annual Review of Phytopathology, no 1, 223-249.
Campbell, A., Frazer, B. D., Gilbert, N. G. A. P., Gutierrez, A. P., & Mackauer, M. (1974). Temperature requirements of some aphids and their parasites. Journal of Applied Ecology, 431–438.
Cho, J. R., Kim, J. H., Choi, B. R., Seo, B. Y., Kim, K. H., Ji, C. W., ... & Ahn, J. J. (2018). Thermal effects on the development, fecundity and life table parameters of Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on yardlong bean (Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.). Korean Journal of Applied Entomology, 57, 261–269.
Dedryver, C. A., Le Ralec, A., & Fabre, F. (2010). The conflicting relationships between aphids and men: a review of aphid damage and control strategies. Comptes Rendus Biologies, 333, 539–553.
Ebert, T. A., & Cartwright, B. (1997). Biology and ecology of Aphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: aphididae). Southwestern Entomologist, 22, 116–153.
Girão, J. E., Pádua, L. E. D. M., Portela, G. L. F., Sousa, F. D. M., & Silva, J. D. D. C. (2019). Thermal requirements, life expectancy and fertility tables of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in Vigna unguiculata (Fabales: Fabaceae) under laboratory conditions. Arquivos Do Instituto Biológico, 86.
Hafiz, N. A. (2006). Use of life tables to asses host plant resistance in cowpea to Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae). Ass Univ Bull Environ Res, 9, 1–6.
Harrewijn, P., & Minks, A. K. (1989). Integrated aphid management: General aspects. Aphids. Their Biology, Natural Enemies, and Control, 100, 267–272.
Kersting, U., Satar, S., & Uygun, N. (1999). Effect of temperature on development rate and fecundity of apterous Aphis gossypii Glover (Hom., Aphididae) reared on Gossypium hirsutum L. Journal of Applied Entomology, 123, 23-27.
Klingler, J., Kovalski, I., Silberstein, L., Thompson, G. A., & Perl-Treves, R. (2001). Mapping of cotton-melon aphid resistance in melon. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 126, 56–63.
Kuo, M. H., & Chen, C. Y. (2004). Development and population parameters of the cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Hemiptera: Aphididae), at various constant temperatures. Form Entomol, no 4, 305-315.
MOUSA, M. K., RAKHA, M. O., & Ueno, T. (2019). Relationships between Development Time, Reproductive Period, Fecundity and Longevity at the Within–individual Level in the Cowpea Aphid, Aphis craccivora Koch (Homoptera: Aphididae). J. Fac. Agr., Kyushu Univ, 64, 101-106.
Nie, N. H., Bent, D. H., & Hull, C. H. (1975). SPSS: Statistical package for the social sciences. New York: McGraw-Hill., Vol. 227.
Obeng-Ofori, D. (2007). The use of botanicals by resource poor farmers in Africa and Asia for the protection of stored agricultural products. Ingentaconnect.Com.
Omoigui, L. O., Ekeuro, G. C., Kamara, A. Y., Bello, L. L., Timko, M. P., & Ogunwolu, G. O. (2017). New sources of aphids [Aphis craccivora (Koch)] resistance in cowpea germplasm using phenotypic and molecular marker approaches. Euphytica, 213, 1–15.
Ou&edraogo, A. P., Batieno, B. J., Traore, F., Tignegre, J. B., Huynh, B. L., Roberts, P. A., ... & Ou&edraogo, J. T. (2018). Screening of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) lines for resistance to three Aphids (Aphis craccivora Koch) strains in Burkina Faso. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 13, 1487-1495.
Satar, S., Kersting, U., & Uygun, N. (2005). Effect of temperature on development and fecundity of Aphis gossypii Glover (Homoptera: Aphididae) on cucumber. Journal of Pest Science, 78, 133-137.
Smith, C. M., & Boyko, E. V. (2007). The molecular bases of plant resistance and defense responses to aphid feeding: current status. Entomologia Experimentalis et Applicata, 122, 1-16.
Soffan, A., & Aldawood, A. S. (2014). Biology and demographic growth parameters of cowpea aphid, Aphis craccivora on faba bean (Vicia faba) cultivars. Journal of Insect Science, no 1, 120.
Togola, A., Boukar, O., Belko, N., Chamarthi, S. K., Fatokun, C., Tamo, M., & Oigiangbe, N. (2017). Host plant resistance to insect pests of cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.): achievements and future prospects. Euphytica, 213.
Trudgill, D. L., & Perry, J. N. (1994). Thermal time and ecological strategies‐a unifying hypothesis. Annals of Applied Biology, no 3, 521-532.
Weigand, S., & Bishara, S. I. (1991). Status of insect pests of faba bean in the Mediterranean region and methods of control. Serie A: Seminaires Mediterraneens.
Zhaozhi, L., Likai, F., Guizhen, G., Ling-Ling, G., Han, P., Sharma, S., & Zalucki, M. P. (2017). Differences in the high-temperature tolerance of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on cotton and soybean: implications for ecological niche switching among hosts. Applied Entomology and Zoology, 52, 9-18.

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Version 1

posted

You are reading this latest preprint version

Thermal effects on the biological parameters of Aphis craccivora (Hemiptera: Aphididae) on bean

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. INTRODUCTION

2. Material and method

1 = Σ e- * l* m (1)

Results

Discussions

Declarations

Authors‘ contributions

Funding

Author Contribution

Acknowledgments

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1