1.SEs promote the polarization of macrophages towards M2 phenotype
Electron microscopy and NTA revealed that particles isolated from SP contained exosomes (SEs) with diameters ranging from 30–150nm(Fig.1A,B) and WB experiment confirmed that SEs expressed exosome-specific-markers CD9, CD63 and HSP70(Fig.1C). SEs were stained with green fluorescent dye PKH67, and then co-cultured with THP-1cells for 24 hours. The green fluorescent was exhibited in the cytoplasm and diffused as small spots around the cell nucleus by confocal microscopy (Fig.1D) confirming that SEs could be uptaken by THP-1 cells.
To investigate the potential regulation of SEs on MΦs polarization, SEs and controls were separately co-cultured with THP-1 cells. Flow cytometry results showed that the ratio of M2 (CD206 +) / M1 (CD86 +) was increased after THP-1 cells treated with SEs (Fig. 2A), implying that SEs may induce M2-MΦs polarization. Subsequently, detection of protein markers associated with MΦs polarization revealed that co-culture with SEs increased the expression of the M2-MΦs-related proteins (Arginase-1 and IL-10), consistent with a decrease in the M1-MΦs-related proteins (iNOS and IFN- γ) (Fig. 2B). The above results comprehensively indicated that SEs could promote the differentiation of MΦs to M2 type, induce the secretion of anti-inflammatory factors and inhibit the expression of inflammatory factors, thus creating an immune tolerance environment conducive to embryo implantation.
2. SEs promote M2 polarization through PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway
Studies have shown that PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway plays an important role in regulating cell biological behavior(19). In the study, WB experiment discovered that the expression of PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway was altered after MΦs co-cultured with SEs (Fig 3A), which suggested that SEs promoted MΦs to M2 polarization through PTEN / PI3K / AKT signaling pathway.
The similar results were found in human decidual tissue. During the IVF assisted pregnancy process, barrier contraception was usually used to avoid unintended pregnancy, thus lacking the direct contact regulation effect of SP on the uterus. We collected decidual tissues from patients with spontaneous abortion after natural pregnancy(NP group)and IVF assisted pregnancy (IVF group), determined the PTEN expression using immunohistochemistry(IHC) assay. The PTEN expression in the IVF group was significantly higher than that in the NP group (P<0.05) (Fig. 3B). From this result, it could be speculated that SP mainly the SEs has some regulatory effects on the expression of PTEN in the decidua.
3.miR-26a-5p is critical for SEs to promote macrophage M2 polarization
As SEs primarily manifest their biological influence by delivering bioactive compounds, including miRNAs, we sought to investigate the plausible ingredients of SEs for macrophage polarization. The GeneChipTM sequencing results showed that miR-26a-5p, which had a targeted modulation effect with PTEN, was abundant in the SEs (Fig.4, Table S1). The expression of miR-26a-5p increased in THP-1 cells after co-culture with SEs confirming that miR-26a-5p was highly expressed in SEs and can be transported into THP-1 cells (Fig.5A). The increase of miR-26a-5p expression in THP-1 cells by the transfection with miR-26a-5p mimics laid the foundation for subsequent experiments (Fig. S1).
Flow cytometry assay showed that THP-1 cells were polarized to M2 and increased the M2 / M1 ratio after transfection of miR-26a-5p mimic compared with the control group and miR-26a-5p inhibitor group(Fig.5B). Meanwhile, M2-MΦs-related proteins Arginase-1 and IL-10 were increased, while M1-MΦs-related protein iNOS and IFN- γ were decreased(Fig.5C). WB experiment further showed that SEs transported the loaded miR-26a-5p to THP-1 cells by acting on PTEN / PI3K / AKT signaling pathway(Fig.5C). Collectedly,SEs could transport the loaded miR-26a-5p to THP-1 cells, and promoted its polarization to M2 by acting on PTEN / PI3K / AKT signaling pathway, which was conducive to immune tolerance
4.SEs help to improve pregnancy outcome in spontaneously aborted mice.
The procedures of animal experiment were shown as Figure 6A. SEs labeled with red fluorescent PKH26 were detected at the maternal-fetal interface of mice after administered by transvaginal injection which confirmed that SEs could reach the maternal uterus through sexual intercourse and directly regulated the cell function at the maternal-fetal interface(Fig. 6B).
Then, we used spontaneous abortion mouse model to test the protective effect of SEs on pregnancy. There was a significant decrease in embryo resorption rate after vaginal injection of SEs to spontaneous abortion mice which proved that SEs can ameliorate embryo loss(Fig.6C, Table1).
Mechanically, in the SE group, miR-26a-5p expression was significantly increased, accompanying with a significantly decrease in PTEN expression at the maternal-fetal interface compared with the control group(Fig.6D-E), which was very similar to the results of human decidua.
Altered PTEN/PI3K/AKT and M1/M2-MΦs-related proteins level indicated that SEs regulated PTEN/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway by targeted transmission of their endogenous miR-26a-5p to MΦs, accordingly promoted MΦs polarization to M2, thereby shaped an immune tolerance state to alleviate abortion(Fig.6F).
Table1. The embryo resorption rate after vaginal injection of SEs in mice with spontaneous abortions.
|
control group(n=4)
|
SE group(n=4)
|
P Value
|
Surviving fetuses
|
20
|
32
|
|
Resorbed fetuses
|
9
|
4
|
|
Resorption rate (%)
|
31.03%
|
11.11
|
P<0.05
|