Impact of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Selected Physicochemical Properties of Saline Sodic Soil of Amibara Area Central Rift Valley Ethiopia

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4949331/v1

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Impact of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Selected Physicochemical Properties of Saline Sodic Soil of Amibara Area Central Rift Valley Ethiopia

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4949331/v1

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Salinity and aridity are two interrelated problems rapidly expanding in Ethiopia and soil with saline sodic property in Amibara irrigated farms threatens crop productivity. A field experiment was conducted at Werer Agricultural Research Center to evaluate the ameliorative effects of gypsum and filter cake on saline-sodic soil. Composite surface soil samples before the experiment and plot-level samples after harvest were collected for laboratory analysis. Post-harvest soil analysis revealed that bulk density, soil pH, exchangeable sodium, and exchangeable calcium, were significantly affected by the interaction of gypsum and filter cake (P < 0.01). The lowest mean soil pH (7.76) was measured from plots treated with 75% gypsum requirement + 25 t ha^− 1 filter cakes and the highest soil pH (8.20) was recorded from untreated plots. Experimental plots treated with a sole application of gypsum and filter cake showed a reduction of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP). In conclusion, the combined amendment of gypsum and filter cake can improve the adverse impacts of pH, SAR, exchangeable sodium, and exchangeable sodium percentage. It could be concluded that the combined application of Gypsum and filter cake enhances soil physicochemical properties and wheat production in the saline-sodic soil of Amibara District.

Salt-affected soil

Exchangeable cations

Amelioration

According to Frew et al. (2015) in Ethiopia, soil salinity problems are increasing in all parts, and more expansion is seen in the central rift valley around the Afar region. The significant impacts of salinity are the agricultural land out of crop production (Ashenafi and Bobe, 2016; Melese et al., 2016). The identification, reclamation, and management of salt-affected soils are the main characteristics and guiding principles for using these soils for agricultural production. However, the process, scope, and speed of soil reclamation vary depending on the site due to variances in the soil, environment, water supply, farm management ability, financial capital, available inputs, and economic incentives. Different research has examined soil amendment enhancing the physicochemical parameters of saline-sodic soils (Cha-um and Kirdmane, 2011; Singh et al., 2016).

One of the materials used as an amendment to recover sodic soils is gypsum. The most emphasis has been paid to the relative effectiveness of gypsum because of its widespread usage as an amendment for the reclamation of saline-sodic soil due to its availability and low cost, albeit sluggish reaction (Ashenafi et al., 2019; Teshome,2019; Kasahun et al., 2020). Various scientists are concentrating on employing organic materials as part of a bigger plan to utilize organic wastes in an environmentally acceptable manner and shield soils from further deterioration. The most frequent issue in dry and semi-arid soils is low organic matter content (Kasahun et al., 2020). Wastes from the sugar industry, one source of organic materials are press mud or filter cake. It has a substantial amount of trace minerals like Zn, Fe, Cu, and Mn, along with important plant nutrients like calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen (Ghulam et al., 2012; Dotaniya et al., 2016). The positive impact of this bio compost on enhancing soil fertility and crop productivity is widely established (Ghulam et al., 2012; Saleh et al., 2012; Kumar et al., 2018). General Objective:

To investigate the effects of gypsum and filter cake on saline-sodic soil in the Amibara area, Central Rift Valley, Ethiopia.

Specific objective

To evaluate the effects of gypsum and filter cake on selected chemical and physical properties of soil.

2.1 Description of the Study Area

The study was conducted at Amibara District, located at 9°20'31" N latitude and 40°10'11" E longitude and the elevation is at about 740m. The climate is semiarid with a bimodal rainfall of 533 millimeters annually. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures are 19.0 and 34.8OC, respectively. The annual evapotranspiration rate of the Amibara district is 2829mm. The soils of the study area are predominantly Eutric Fluvents, order Fluvisols followed by Vertisols occupying about 30% of the total area (Wondimagegne and Abere, 2012). Generally, the widespread occurrence of salinity and sodicity problems in Amibara District farmlands is mainly due to the weathering of Na, Ca, Mg, and K-rich igneous rocks and poor irrigation water management (Heluf, 1985). There is also a deficiency of micronutrients Fe, Zn, and Mn which are needed to neutralize soil reaction (pH) but also minimum toxicity effect of B and Mo (Ashenafi et al., 2016). Most salinity and sodicity/alkalinity abandoned areas are covered by Prosopis julifora (Zeraye, 2015).

2.2 Soil Sampling and Preparation

Before applying treatment, soil samples were gathered by walking around the experimental site's roughly 98 m × 16.2 m wide area in a zigzag pattern. Ten typical soil samples were taken at a depth of 0–30 cm using a soil auger and core sampler, depending on the variability of the soil. Ultimately, a composite soil sample weighing roughly 1 kg was created to assess a few of the soil's physicochemical characteristics and determine how much gypsum would be needed before planting and treatment application. Nonetheless, augers and core samples were used to gather post-harvest soil samples from each of the 60 plots at a depth of 0 to 30 cm.

2.3 Determination of Gypsum Requirement

A significant quantity of adsorbed sodium up to 15% or more on their exchange complex is a defining characteristic of saline-sodic soils. When applied appropriately in terms of size and quantity, gypsum (CaSO₄.₂H₂O) is frequently utilized for the restoration of such soils. To lower the initial ESP, gypsum parameters (GR) for a 30 cm soil depth were measured (FAO, 2008). Zia (2006); and Yadav (2013) determined the amount of gypsum required per unit of land area of saline-sodic soils to replace exchangeable Na to attain the requisite sodicity.

$$\:GR=CEC*d*BD*0.081\left(ESPi-ESPf\right)/f$$

where GR = Amount of gypsum required in t ha^− 1, CEC = cation exchange capacity [cmol(+)/kg] of soil, d = Depth of soil (0.30 m) to be reclaimed and soil structure has to be improved, BD = Bulk density of soil (g cm-3), ESPi = Actual ESP of the soil, ESPf = Final ESP to be arrived at after reclamation (10%) and f = purity of gypsum applied (80%).

2.4 Experimental Design and Treatments

Three replications and a factorial combination of two factors were employed in the Randomised Complete Block Design (RCBD). Factor two was filter cake (FC), with five levels: 0 (FC0), 10 (FC10), 15 (FC15), 20 (FC20), and 25 (FC25) t ha ^− 1. Factor one was gypsum, with four levels computed from 100% gypsum requirement: 0% (control), 25%, 50%, and 75% (GR) (Table1). The source of the filter cake was Kesem Kebena Sugar Factory. Fertilizer analytical parameter guide was used to obtain the laboratory analysis of the organic fertilizer (filter cake) (Lemma et al., 2021).

Table 1

List of Treatment Combinations
Treatment Code	Treatment Combination	Description
1	Control	Control
2	GY0%FC10	0% Gypsum with 10 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
3	GY0%FC15	0% Gypsum with 15 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
4	GY0%FC20	0% Gypsum with 20t ha^− 1 Filter cake
5	GY0%FC25	0%Gypsum with 25t ha^− 1 filter cake
6	GY25%FC0	25% Gypsum without Filter cake
7	GY25%FC10	25%Gypsum with 10t har^− 1 filter cake
8	GY25%FC15	25% Gypsum with 15 t ha^− 1 filter cake
9	GY25%FC20	25% Gypsum with 20t ha^− 1 filter cake
10	GY25%FC25	25% Gypsum with 25t ha⁻ filter cake
11	GY50%FC0	50% Gypsum without Filter cake
12	GY50%FC10	50% Gypsum with10t ha^− 1 Filter cake
13	GY50%FC15	50% Gypsum with 15 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
14	GY50%FC20	50% Gypsum with 20 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
15	GY50%FC25	50% Gypsum with 25 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
16	GY75%FC0	75% Gypsum without Filter cake
17	GY75%FC10	75% Gypsum with 10t ha^− 1 Filter cake
18	GY75%FC15	75% Gypsum with 15 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
19	GY75%FC20	75% Gypsum with 20 t ha^− 1 Filter cake
20	GY75%FC25	75% Gypsum with 25 t ha^− 1 Filter cake

2.5 Soil Analysis

2.5.1 Analysis of Selected Soil Physical Properties

The Boycouos hydrometer method was used to determine the distribution of soil particle sizes (Bouyoucos, 1962). Blake (1965) states that to ascertain bulk density (BD), undisturbed soil samples were gathered using the core-sampler method. The formula for particle density (PD) is the mass of a solid divided by its volume. The following formula was also used to calculate total porosity using bulk and particle density (Hillel, 2004).

Where, BD = bulk density (g cm-3), and PD = particle density (g cm-3)

2.5.2 Analysis of Selected Soil Chemical Properties

A digital electrical conductivity and pH meter, respectively, was used to measure the soil paste extract of ECe and pHe potentiometrically (Richards, 1954). The methodology for determining soil organic carbon was followed by Walkely and Black (1934). Using a spectrophotometer and the Olsen extraction method, available phosphorus was measured calorimetrically (Olsen et al., 1954). The Kjeldahl digestion, distillation, and titration procedure, as detailed by Blake (1965), was used to analyze total N. Samples saturated with 1M ammonium acetate (NH4OAc) at pH 7 were used to calculate the soil's cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Van Reewijk, 1992). Exchangeable cations were removed from the samples in 1M ammonium acetate at pH 7 (Watanabe and Olsen 1965). The following formulas were used to calculate the percentages of exchangeable sodium (ESP) and percentage base saturation (PBS):

$$\:\text{E}\text{S}\text{P}\:\left(\text{%}\right)=\:\frac{\text{E}\text{x}\text{c}\text{h}\text{a}\text{n}\text{g}\text{e}\text{a}\text{b}\text{l}\text{e}\:\text{s}\text{o}\text{d}\text{i}\text{u}\text{m}\:\left({\text{N}\text{a}}^{+}\right)}{\text{C}\text{E}\text{C}}\times\:100$$

$$\:\text{P}\text{B}\text{S}\:\left(\text{%}\right)=\:\frac{\sum\:\text{E}\text{x}\text{c}\text{h}\text{a}\text{n}\text{g}\text{e}\text{a}\text{b}\text{l}\text{e}\:\text{c}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\text{s}\:({\text{C}\text{a}}^{2+}+\:{\text{M}\text{g}}^{2+}+\:{\text{K}}^{+}+\:{\text{N}\text{a}}^{+})}{\text{C}\text{E}\text{C}}\times\:100$$

Where concentrations were in cmol (+)/kg of soil. The other soil sodicity parameter computed was sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), from the relative concentrations of sodium, magnesium, and calcium. SAR was calculated from cation concentrations in a saturated paste extract (Richards, 1954). $\:\text{S}\text{A}\text{R}=\:\frac{{\text{N}\text{a}}^{+}}{\sqrt{\frac{{\text{C}\text{a}}^{2+}+\:{\text{M}\text{g}}^{2+}}{2}}}$

2.6 Amendment Application and Planting

The source of the filter cake was Kesem Kebena Sugar Factory. Fertilizer analytical parameter guide was used to obtain the laboratory analysis of the organic fertilizer (filter cake) (Lemma et al., 2021)(Table2).

Table 2

Laboratory results of selected chemical properties of filter cake
Parameter	Units	Values
Ph	---	7.57
EC	dS/m	1.66
TOC	%	2.88
Av.P	mg/kg	17.94
Total Cations
Ex Ca	cmol(+)kg^− 1	19.84
Ex Mg	cmol(+)kg^− 1	5.96
Ex Na	cmol(+)kg^− 1	4.51
CEC	cmol(+)kg^− 1	52.42
C:N		15.16
SAR		2.27
N	%	0.19
Soluble cations
K	meq/l of water	4.5
Na	meq/l of water	5.69
Ca	meq/l of water	13.39
Mg	meq/l of water	6.1
Where, EC = (electric conductivity), C: N = (carbon to nitrogen ratio), CEC = (cation exchange capacity),Av.P = (available phosphorus),SAR = (sodium absorption ratio).TOC = (total organic carbon).

We purchased gypsum from the Yonatan Biti Gypsum Factory. A 2mm sieve was used to filter agricultural grade gypsum, which has an 80% purity level, to guarantee consistency and good solubility. Hand tools were utilized to incorporate gypsum and filter cake into the soil. Following a month-long treatment application, the Ga'ambo variety of bread wheat was seeded. Water was obtained through furrow irrigation,

2.7 Data analysis

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) on soil physicochemical properties was using SAS version 9.4 statistical software program (SAS, 2016). Significant differences between and among treatment means were assessed using the least significant difference (LSD) at a 0.05 level of probability (Gomez and Gomez, 1984).

3.1 Initial Soil Physicochemical Properties

Selected physicochemical properties of composite soil samples collected from 0-30cm were characterized before treatments application. The particle size distribution results indicate that the sand, silt and clay contents of the soil were 14.57, 46.6, and 38.83% respectively. Based on particle size distribution the experimental site was silt clay loam. Soil bulk density (BD) was (1.31 g cm-3) moderate according to the standard levels (Hazelton and Murphy 2016) and particle density values (PD) 2.45. Total porosity of the soil sample was 42%the value was low related to the critical values of total porosity of productive agricultural soil. Large values of BD correspondingly small values of porosity may be due to compaction and this may impede root penetration and drainage. However, the bulk density (BD) values were moderate and highly affected the total porosity. Agricultural soil total porosity (TP) or critical values started from 47% (Hazelton and Murphy 2016; Barik et al., 2011).

There was 0.90 percent organic carbon (OC) in the soil. Tekalign (1991) reported that the soil's OC content was low, suggesting a moderate capability for the soil to provide plants with nutrients through the decomposition of organic matter. The salinity of the soils may be the cause of the low OC concentration, which has an impact on biomass productivity.

The soil's higher capacity to hold cations was shown by the high CEC of 38.34cmol (+) kg^− 1. The total N content was 0.09%, which Tekalign (1991) considers low. A low amount of organic matter in the soil may be related to a low total nitrogen concentration. Olsen et al. (1954) reported that the medium for plant development phosphorus content was 12.58 mg/kg. Murphy (1968) classed the soil as saline-sodic soil based on its ESP value of 24.7%, which is larger than 15, SAR values greater than 13, pH greater than 7.8, and electrical conductivity levels greater than 4 ds/m.

3.2. Effect of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Soil Physical Properties

Bulk density (BD)

Soil BD was highly and significantly affected by the main effects of gypsum (P < 0.05), filter cake, and the interaction effect (P ≤ 0.01). The highest bulk density (1.40 g cm-3) was recorded for the soil of the control plot, whereas, the lowest bulk density (1.04 g cm-3) was recorded for the treatment combination of 75% GR with 25 t ha^− 1filter cake and 505GY and 25t ha^− 1FC (Table 3). Mahmood et al. (2013) also reported a decrease in the bulk density of saline-sodic soil with the combined application of organic matter and chemical amendment. Decreasing soil BD might be the physical binding effect of organic matter and gypsum that creates aggregation of soil particles. Similarly, different authors, reported that soil BD decreased with the integrated application of filter cake with gypsum (Muhammad and Khattak, 2009; El-Sanat et al., 2017). Gharaibeh et al. (2009) also stated that gypsum amendment in saline-sodic and sodic soil can improve the physical soil properties such as BD.

Table 3

Interaction effect of gypsum and filter cake on soil bulk density
Gypsum rate (%)	Filter cake (t ha ^− 1)
BD(g cm^− 3)	0	10	15	20	25
0	1.35a	1.29b	1.20c	1.17cd	1.13de
25	1.11efg	1.08fghi	1.06ghi	1.06hi	1.07fgh
50	1.10efgh	1.06ghi	1.05i	1.05i	1.04i
75	1.12ef	1.04i	1.11ef	1.04i	1.04i
CV	2.63
LSD	0.04
Mean values followed by the same letter within each column and row are not significantly Difference at α = 0.01, based on LSD test. BD = (bulk density), TP = (total porosity).

According to Wang et al. (2014) application of mixture of organic wastes decreased BD by 11% and increased total porosity by 25% compared to the control. These suggest the effectiveness of the combination of amendments for reclaiming the physical properties of salt-affected soil. Bethel et al. (2019) reported positive effects of the combined application of sugar industry by-products (filter cake and bagasse) on calcareous soil physical properties. Ghulam et al. (2010) reported decreased BD of the soil and increased total porosity for increased application rates of press mud from 15 to 20 tones ha^− 1.

3.3. Effect of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Soil Chemical Properties

3.3.1 Soil reaction and electrical conductivity

Soil reaction (pH): Statistical analysis showed that the main and the interaction effects of gypsum and filter cake significantly (P ≤ 0.01) affected soil pH. The highest pH value (8.20) was recorded at the control plot, whereas, the lowest pHe (7.76) was recorded for plots treated with 75% GR and 25 t ha^− 1 filter cakes (Table 4). The result of this study agrees with the finding of Basak et al. (2021) who reported for the combined application of gypsum and filter cake. Gypsum application to the soil with the desired quantity of Ca²⁺ can neutralize the soluble HCO₃, and exchange Na⁺ from the soil to reduce the soil pH (Pushparaj and Chitdeshwari 2016). Khattak et al. (2007) and Aljughaiman (2020) also reported considerably decreased soil pH with increasing levels of gypsum application to the soil. Results of soil pH values are in accordance with the confide finding of Said et al (2010) that soil pH in the control treatment decreased to 30% in the soil receiving the highest level of filter cake.

Table 4

Interaction effect of gypsum and filter cake on soil pHe,ECe,OC, and Av.P
Interaction effect of GY (%)&FC ( t ha^− 1)	pHe	Ece(ds/m)	OC (%)	Av.P(mg/kg
Control	8.20a	4.85a	1.17r	11.21p
GY0%&FC10	8.14a	4.81a	1.17r	11.85o
GY0%&FC15	8.06b	4.75b	1.25q	12.40n
GY0%&FC20	8.16a	4.71b	1.33o	14.00k
GY0%&FC25	8.16a	4.52dc	1.14n	16.00de
GY25%&FC0	7.96cd	4.66c	1.31p	13.00m
GY25%&FC10	7.97c	4.51d	1.43m	13.50l
GY25%&FC15	7.97c	4.41e	1.45l	14.50ij
GY25%&FC20	7.88de	4.33f	1.47k	15.20gh
GY25%&FC25	7.94cd	4.23g	1.49i	16.20cd
GY50%&FC0	7.95cd	4.20g	1.53i	13.20lm
GY50%&FC10	7.91cd	4.08h	1.57h	14.56ij
GY50%&FC15	7.93cd	3.98i	1.63g	15.69ef
GY50%&FC20	7.91cd	3.98i	1.63g	16.50c
GY50%&FC25	7.91cd	3.84j	1.67f	17.02b
GY75%&FC0	7.96cd	3.76k	1.75e	15.4fg
GY75%&FC10	7.90cd	3.65l	1.85d	14.2jk
GY75%&FC15	7.88de	3.54m	1.91c	14.85hi
GY75%&FC20	7.82ef	3.41n	1.95b	17.25b
GY75%&FC25	7.76f	3.20o	2.12a	17.89a
CV (%)	0.57	0.71	0.53	1.7
LSD (5%)	0.07	0.04	0.015	0.38
Means values followed by the same letter within each column and rows not significantly different at α = 0.05, based on LSD test.Av.P= (available phosphorus), ECe = (soil electrical conductivity), OC = (organic carbon)

The results reported by Negim, (2015) for the combined application of filter cake and gypsum were the best treatment in the reduction of pH on saline-sodic soil and such results were also reported by Udayasoorian et al. (2009); Pagaria and Totawat (2011) ; prapagar et al., 2012).

Ghulam et al. (2010) reported decreased soil pH for plots that received the highest level of filter cake. Niazi et al. (2001) attributed a decrease in soil pH to an increase in organic carbon (OC) concentration and improved biological activity after application of organic manure. The decomposition of soil organic matter produces carbonic acid via CO₂ dissolution in water, which could decrease the pH towards neutral point.

Soil electrical conductivity

Analysis of soil laboratory data showed that the main interaction of gypsum with filter cake was highly and significantly (P ≤ 0.01) affected soil electrical conductivity. After wheat harvest, the lowest ECe (3.20 ds/m) was recorded for plots treated with a combined application of 75% GR with 25 t ha^− 1filter cake while, the highest ECe (4.85 dS.m^− 1) was recorded from the control plots (Table 4).

These results agree with the findings of Abdullah (2020); and Prapagar (2012) who reported decreased ECe of the soil due to applying gypsum and filter cake. Assefa et al. (2015); and Sharma et al. (1982) indicated that the mixture of organic matter with gypsum rates reduced the soil electrical conductivity. The main effects of gypsum were greater than that of filter cake in reducing the EC of the soil. Udayasoorian et al. (2009) suggested that the combined application of organic and inorganic ameliorants was superior in reducing the electrical conductivity of soil.

3.3.2 Organic carbon and available phosphorus

Post-harvest soil organic carbon content was highly significantly (P ≤ 0.01) affected by the main effect of gypsum and filter cake and their interaction effect. The highest OC (2.12%) was recorded for plots treated with 75% GR + 25 t ha^− 1filter cake followed by application of 75% GR + 20 tha^− 1FC (1.95%). The lowest soil organic carbon (1.17%) was recorded for plots treated with 10 t ha^− 1filter cake and the control plots (Table 4).

Basak et al. (2021) reported higher SOC due to the combined application of 100% gypsum and 15 t ha^− 1pressmud (filter cake) (Gyp + PM). This could be ascribed to the supplementation of soluble Ca from gypsum, which initially might have neutralized the alkalinity effect of Na, and de–de-protonated carboxylic group (R–COO) leading to metal chelate formation, and subsequently facilitated in chemical recalcitrance of SOC (Deb et al., 2020).

The same was reported by Bahadur et al. (2013), OC content was improved by the conjoint use of organic manure and inorganic fertilizer. The organic residue enhanced the soil's organic carbon and accelerated the microbial activities in soil. Different researchers reported that filter cake increased the soil organic carbon content (Singh et al., 2009; Dotaniya et al., 2014; Prabhavathi, 2019).

Available phosphorus (Av. P): The main effect of gypsum and filter cake as well as their interaction effects were highly significant (P < 0.01) on soil available phosphorus (Table 4). The highest available phosphorus (17.89 mg/kg) was recorded from the plots treated with 75% GR + 25 t ha^− 1 filter cake followed by 75% GR + 20 t ha^− 1 filter cake (17.25 mg/kg). The availability of phosphorus from organic residue depends on the C: N ratio of the applied material. If it is on the lower side, it enhances the available phosphorus concentration in the soil solution. The minimum (11.21 mg /kg) was recorded for the control plot. In agreement with the findings of this study, Khosa (2017) reported that organic amendments (compost, farmyard manure, and sugarcane filter cake) significantly increased the bioavailability of phosphorus, soil respiration, and microbial biomass. Said (2010) reported that press mud at 15 to 20 t ha^− 1 would be the most suitable dose for improving the chemical properties of calcareous soil (P, S, K, Fe, Mn, Zn, and Cu). Bethel et al. (2019) reported that soil available phosphorus increased from filter cake and bagasse application compared to untreated plots.

3.6 Interaction effect of GY and FC on exchangeable Ca, Mg, Na, and SAR

Exchangeable calcium (Ca)

Exchangeable calcium was significantly influenced by the sole and combined application of gypsum and filter cake (P < 0.01). The highest exchangeable calcium (31.51 mol (+) kg^− 1) was recorded in the plots treated with 75% GR + 25 t ha^− 1 filter cake followed by 75% GR + 20t ha^− 1 filter cake (30.50 mol (+) kg^− 1)(Table 5). Exchangeable Ca increased due to the addition of filter cake or gypsum which might have resulted from dissolution of gypsum and decomposition of filter cake. The minimum exchangeable calcium (17.46cmol (+) kg^− 1) was recorded from untreated plots. Sarwar et al. (2008 and 2010) reported increased exchangeable Calcium due to filter cake and synthetic fertilizer treatment, but filter cake significantly raised exchangeable calcium concentration in the soil.

Table 5

Interaction effect of gypsum and filter cake on exchangeable Ca,Na and Mg
Interaction effect of GY (%)&FC ( t ha^− 1)	Ca (cmol(+)kg^− 1	Na (cmol(+)kg^− 1	Mg (cmol(+)kg^− 1	SAR
Control	17.46o	11.04a	3.72d	13.22a
GY0%&FC10	17.89a	10.71b	3.87cd	12.30b
GY0%&FC15	18.56n	10.21d	3.96bcd	11.72c
GY0%&FC20	20.23m	9.77f	4.18ab	11.19d
GY0%&FC25	22.00j	10.04e	4.41a	10.48f
GY25%&FC0	18.65n	10.60c	3.93bcd	10.83e
GY25%&FC10	20.87l	10.12de	3.94bcd	10.89ef
GY25%&FC15	21.50k	9.51g	3.94bcd	10.10g
GY25%&FC20	23.54i	8.62h	4.06bc	9.69h
GY25%&FC25	25.12h	8.52hi	3.94bcd	9.11i
GY50%&FC0	26.12f	8.50i	3.99bcd	9.03ij
GY50%&FC10	23.50i	8.35j	3.94bcd	8.79j
GY50%&FC15	25.68g	7.89k	4.22ab	8.22k
GY50%&FC20	26.51f	7.62l	4.01bc	8.27k
GY50%&FC25	27.13e	7.54l	4.25ab	7.54l
GY75%&FC0	28.36d	7.02m	3.99bcd	7.42l
GY75%&FC10	28.87c	6.73n	3.94bcd	7.10m
GY75%&FC15	29.14c	6.61o	3.94bcd	7.03mn
GY75%&FC20	30.50b	6.44p	3.96bcd	6.81no
GY75%&FC25	31.51a	5.56q	3.94bcd	6.64o
CV(%)	1.08	0.74	1.04	1.75
LSD(0.05)	0.40	0.09	0.27	0.30
Mean values followed by the same letter within each column and row for the parameters are not significantly different at α = 0.05, based on LSD test. Exchangeable, Ca(Calcium),Na (Sodium),Mg (Magnesium).

Pushparaj and Thiyagarajan (2016) also reported higher exchangeable Ca on the soil exchange sites due to gypsum application followed by press mud (filter cake) and vermin compost which could result in higher Ca availability. Sodicity declined due to a sufficient supply of favorable cations, in particular Ca thus reducing the concentration of Na on the exchange complex. Prapaga et al. (2012) reported that exchangeable Ca levels increased for gypsum-treated soils and combined application of gypsum and organic amendments.

Gypsum is widely accepted as a primary source of Ca to reclaim sodic soils and its use has been long studied as part of the most important remediation strategy in sodic soil. However, due to increased costs of chemical amendments and original recurrent sodicity issues, various organic amendments were also used to supplement Ca organic manure to improve the soil properties (Celis et al., 2013; Pushparaj and Thiyagarajan, 2016).

Exchangeable sodium

exchangeable sodium concentration in the soil was highly significantly (P ≤ 0.01) affected by the main effects of gypsum and filter cake and their interaction. The highest exchangeable sodium (11.04cmol (+) kg^− 1) was recorded for the soil of untreated (control) plot, while the lowest was recorded for the soil of plots treated with 75%GR + 25 t ha^− 1 filter cakes (5.56cmol (+) kg^− 1)(Table 5). Pushparaj and Thiyagarajan (2016) reported that the addition of gypsum effectively reduced the exchangeable content by 42.5% which was closely followed by the addition of filter cake (40.5%). Generally, exchangeable sodium decreased with increasing application of gypsum and filer cake. Tajada (2006) also suggested that organic and inorganic ameliorants are superior in reducing exchangeable Na from saline-sodic and sodic soil. Sodicity declined due to a sufficient supply of favorable cations, particularly Ca, thus reducing the concentration of Na on the exchange complex (Srinivasan et al., 2010; Pushparaj and Thiyagarajan 2016).

Exchangeable magnesium

The soil analysis result showed that exchangeable magnesium concentration in soil was significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected by the main effect of filter cake and the interaction effect of gypsum and filter cake (Table 5). The highest exchangeable magnesium (4.41 mol (+) kg^− 1) was recorded for plots treated with 25 t ha^− 1 FC and followed by 50% GY with 15t ha^− 1 FC, however, the lowest exchangeable magnesium was registered for control plots (Table 7).

Bhattacharyya et al. (2007) reported higher exchangeable magnesium content of the soil due to the application of organic manures such as press mud and vermin-compost than inorganic amendments like gypsum, elemental Sulphur, and ferrous materials. Ghulam et al. (2010) also reported that Ca + Mg concentrations increased with increasing rates of sugar industry by-products.

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)

the analysis of variance showed that a highly (P < 0.01) significant difference was observed for the main and interaction effects of gypsum and filter cake on SAR. The highest SAR (13.22)(Table 5) was obtained from the control plot, while the lowest (6.64) was from the application of 75% GR + 25t ha^− 1FC followed by 75% GR + 20 t ha^− 1FC (6.81). According to Muhammad and Khattak (2011); and Shaaban et al. (2013), the application of filter cake decreased SAR. The result also showed that SAR decreased as the rate of gypsum level increased from 0–75% GR. The reduction in SAR can be explained by the displacement of excess exchangeable Na⁺ from the soil colloidal complex and its subsequent leaching by irrigation water.

3.7 The main effect of GY and FC on soil exchangeable K, CEC, PBS, and ESP

Exchangeable potassium (K)

exchangeable potassium was not significantly (P > 0.05) affected by the main effect of gypsum and the interaction effect of gypsum and filter cake. The filter cake was also highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) on exchangeable potassium. Relatively high exchangeable K (2.01cmol (+) kg ^− 1)was recorded for the soil of plots treated with 25t ha^− 1 filter cake followed by 20t ha-1 filter cake (2.0 cmol (+) kg ^− 1) (Table 6) while low exchangeable K (1.75 cmol (+) kg ^− 1) was for control plot. In agreement with this result, Pushparaj & Thiyagarajan (2016), reported that Exchangeable K status was higher for soil treated with filter cake (Bethel et al., 2019).

Table 6

the main effect of gypsum and filter cake on soil K, CEC, ESP and PBS
GY %	Ex K cmol(+)kg^− 1)	CEC (cmol(+)kg^− 1)	PBS (%)	ESP (%)
0	1.86	42.40	84.28d	24.73a
25	1.90	42.06	88.71c	22.57b
50	1.95	42.67	93.36b	18.72c
75	1.97	43.12	97.58a	15.01
CV (%)	8.21	3.94	4.82	6.95
LSD(0.05)	NS	NS	3.38	1.06
Filter cake in t ha^− 1
0	1.75b	41.26b	86.75	22.92a
10	1.88a	42.27ab	88.91	21.30b
15	1.95a	42.56ab	89.85	20.16b
20	2.00a	43.11a	91.36	18.82c
25	2.01a	43.61a	93.03	18.08cc
CV (%)	8.48	4.20	5.03	7.14
LSD (0.05)	0.13	1.45	NS	1.17

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

the interaction effect of gypsum with filter cake and the main case of gypsum haven't significant effect (P > 0.05) on soil cation exchange capacity. The main application of filter cake was highly significant (P ≤ 0.05) on CEC. The highest CEC (43.61%) was recorded for the sole application of 25 t ha^− 1 FC followed by 20 t ha^− 1 FC (43.11%) (Table 6). The lowest CEC (41.26%) was for soil of plots not treated with FC. These may be due to organic matter input into the soil.

Pushparaj and Thiyagarajan (2016) revealed that the application of organic amendments encourages granulation, increases CEC, and is responsible for the release of Ca, Mg, and K (Brady and Weil, 2005). Reduction of the soil sodicity by replacement of Na with Ca and Mg. Being a divalent cation Mg can also replace the Na from the soil exchangeable site (Gharaibeh et al., 2010, 2014).

Percent base saturation (PBS)

The interaction effect of gypsum with filter cake and the main case of filter cake did not significantly (P > 0.05) affect soil percent base saturation. The main case of gypsum was significant (P < 0.01) on soil PBS. The highest PBS (97.58%) was recorded for the soil treated by 75% GR. The lowest PBS (84.28%) was recorded for untreated plots (Table 6).

3.8 Exchangeable sodium percentage

Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP)

Analysis of the soil data revealed that the main effects of gypsum and filter cake were highly significant (P ≤ 0.01), and interaction effects were non-significant on ESP (P > 0.05). Based on the main effects of gypsum, the highest ESP (24.73%) was recorded for control plots (Table 6). However, the lowest ESP (15.01%) was recorded for the soil of the plots treated with a 75% soil gypsum requirement. The possible reason might be the application of gypsum that enhanced the chemical reaction and exchanged Na with Ca from the soil exchange complex. Then, Na⁺ in soluble form might be leached down due to improved soil physical and chemical conditions. Gypsum amendment might be attributed to increased Ca in soil solution which promotes Na displacement and its subsequent removal to lower soil layers during irrigation water application (Gharaibeh et al., 2009).

3.8. Effects of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Grain Yield (GYD): the main effect of gypsum and filter cake and their interaction were highly significant (P < 0.01) on wheat GYD. Based on interaction analysis the highest GYD (4.49 t ha^− 1) was obtained from 75% GR with 25 t ha^− 1 filter cake (Table 15). However, the minimum GYD was recorded from the control plot. The result can be attributed to the C: N ratios. The study of Ghulam et al. (2012) indicates that filter cake (press mud) included both macro and micronutrients, which increased yield and yield attributing characteristics of crops.

A combined gypsum and filter cake can improve the physical and chemical properties of saline-sodic soil. However, some soil chemical properties are non significant on the combined application and significant on the main effects of gypsum and filter cake, For example, exchangeable sodium percentage has no significant impact on the interaction effect but non on significant on the sole application of gypsum and filter cake, both treatments reduced the exchangeable sodium percentage level in (24.72–15.01%) but not achieve on the desired values 10%.

The amendment of gypsum and filter cake at a rate of 75% GR combined with 25 t ha-1filter cake requirements is beneficial to improve the productivity of the Bread Wheat variety (Ga, ambo) grown on saline-sodic soil in Amibara woreda. However, further studies should be conducted at various locations using different salt-resistant wheat varieties and different rates of gypsum and filter cake to provide conclusive recommendations.

Na	Sodium
GY	Gypsum
GR	Gypsum Requirement
LSD	List Significant Difference
OC	Organic Carbon
OM	Organic Matter
PD	Particle Density
PBS	Percent Base Saturation
RCBD	Randomized Complete Blok Design
RWC	Relative Water Content
REP	Replication
SAR	Sodium Adsorption Ratio
SAS	Statistical Analysis System

Acknowledgments

The assistance of technical staff at the Werer Agricultural Research Center and Haramaya University is gratefully acknowledged.

Data Availability Statement:

The data used to support the finding of this study are included within the article

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No competing interests reported.

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Impact of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Selected Physicochemical Properties of Saline Sodic Soil of Amibara Area Central Rift Valley Ethiopia

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Abstract

1. Introduction

2. Materials and methods

2.1 Description of the Study Area

2.2 Soil Sampling and Preparation

2.3 Determination of Gypsum Requirement

2.4 Experimental Design and Treatments

2.5 Soil Analysis

2.5.1 Analysis of Selected Soil Physical Properties

2.5.2 Analysis of Selected Soil Chemical Properties

2.6 Amendment Application and Planting

2.7 Data analysis

3. Results and discussion

3.1 Initial Soil Physicochemical Properties

3.2. Effect of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Soil Physical Properties

3.3. Effect of Gypsum and Filter Cake on Soil Chemical Properties

3.3.1 Soil reaction and electrical conductivity

3.3.2 Organic carbon and available phosphorus

3.6 Interaction effect of GY and FC on exchangeable Ca, Mg, Na, and SAR

3.7 The main effect of GY and FC on soil exchangeable K, CEC, PBS, and ESP

3.8 Exchangeable sodium percentage

4. Conclusion

Abbreviations

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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