The demographic analysis of the surveyed paddy rice farmers, summarized in Table 1, provides a comprehensive overview of their age, gender, education, and income distributions. The age data reveals that most of the farmers fall within the 26–35 years and 46–55 years age brackets, accounting for 28.1% and 27.6% of the sample, respectively. This indicates a significant presence of middle-aged individuals in the farming population. Additionally, the gender distribution shows a marked predominance of male farmers, who constitute 71.4% of the respondents, highlighting a substantial gender disparity in the sector.
Educational attainment among the farmers is varied, with the majority having at least elementary education (29.2%). However, higher education levels are less common, with only 8.9% holding a Bachelor of Science or Higher National Diploma and a mere 1.0% possessing a Master's or Doctoral degree. Income levels are predominantly low, with over half of the farmers earning less than N50,000. Only a small fraction of the farmers has incomes exceeding N200,000, underscoring the economic challenges within the sector. These findings emphasize the need for targeted interventions to enhance educational opportunities, promote sustainable farming practices, and improve economic conditions for paddy rice farmers in Nigeria.
Table 1
Demographic Information of Farmers (N = 192)
Variables | Categories | Frequency | Percentage (%) |
Age (Years) | 18–25 | 16 | 8.3 |
26–35 | 54 | 28.1 |
36–45 | 37 | 19.3 |
46–55 | 53 | 27.6 |
56–65 | 26 | 13.5 |
65 and above | 6 | 3.1 |
Gender | Male | 137 | 71.4 |
Female | 55 | 28.6 |
Education | Elementary | 56 | 29.2 |
High school | 40 | 20.8 |
Vocational trade | 36 | 18.8 |
NCE/OND | 41 | 21.4 |
B.Sc./HND | 17 | 8.9 |
M.Sc.& Ph.D. | 2 | 1.0 |
Monthly Income | Less than N50,000 | 102 | 53.1 |
N50,000-N100,000 | 65 | 33.9 |
N100,001-N200,000 | 16 | 8.3 |
N200,001-N500,000 | 7 | 3.6 |
N500,001-N1,000,000 | 2 | 1.0 |
Above N1,000,000 | 0 | .0 |
NCE/OND – Associate degree equivalent; NCE = National Certificate of Education, OND = Ordinary National Diploma; Monthly income is reported in Nigerian currency (Naira) |
Table 2 reveals that among 192 respondents, 32.3% identified implementing regulatory standards as the most effective strategy to mitigate paddy field contamination and climate risks. Close behind, 30.7% favored educating and providing support for farmers, highlighting the importance of knowledge and resources. Improving agricultural practices was chosen by 29.17%, indicating a need for better farming methods. Lastly, promoting the cultivation of resilient crop varieties was the least preferred strategy at 7.8%, suggesting it is considered less impactful compared to the other approaches. Regulatory standards play a crucial role in ensuring compliance with environmental norms and can significantly impact pollution levels and agricultural practices (Naeem et al., 2020). In fact, previous studies show that strict enforcement of regulations can lead to reduced pesticide use and better environmental outcomes (Dabbert et al., 2019). However, Farmer education and support programs are essential for promoting sustainable practices and enhancing resilience to climate risks (Van Meensel et al., 2019). Providing access to knowledge and resources can lead to improved adoption of best practices and technology, thereby reducing environmental impacts (Lamb et al., 2021). Also equally important to note, aadopting improved agricultural practices, such as integrated pest management and precision agriculture, can mitigate pesticide use and minimize environmental contamination, enhancing soil health and water quality for long-term sustainability (Smith et al., 2018; Gomiero et al., 2011). Although promoting resilient crop varieties was the least preferred strategy in your study, it has significant potential in adapting to climate change impacts like drought and pest outbreaks, contributing to food security and sustainable agriculture (Tilman et al., 2019; Lobell et al., 2020). It can be generally deduced improving agricultural practices, implementing strict regulatory standards, education and providing supports for farmers are most effective mitigation measures necessary to effectively combat paddy field contamination and its attendant climate risk.
Table 2
Most effective mitigation strategy in response topaddy field contamination and climate risks (n = 192)
| | f | % | Rank |
a | Improving agricultural practices | 56 | 29.17 | 3rd |
b | Implementing regulatory standards | 62 | 32.3 | 1st |
c | Educating and providing support for farmers | 59 | 30.7 | 2nd |
d | Promoting cultivation of varieties | 15 | 7.8 | 4th |
F = frequency %=Percentage score, n = number of responses |
Table 3 presents data on the adoption of ecological innovation among 192 Nigerian paddy rice farmers to mitigate paddy field contamination and climate risks. The results show that only 29.69% of the farmers have initiated new and/or extraordinary efforts in this regard, while a significant majority, 70.31%, have not adopted such measures. This indicates that ecological innovation is not widely implemented among the farmers, suggesting a potential area for improvement in addressing environmental and climate-related challenges in paddy rice farming. The findings from the study among Nigerian paddy rice farmers reveal significant insights into environmental awareness and perceived exposure to toxic elements. Approximately 58.5% of farmers demonstrate awareness of climate change and contamination risks in paddy fields, indicating a foundational understanding within the community. However, 41.45% lack this awareness, highlighting a need for targeted educational interventions. Regarding perceived exposure to toxic elements, 29.69% of farmers feel at risk, suggesting varying levels of concern about environmental contaminants. This perception can influence farmers' adoption of mitigation strategies. The majority (70.31%) do not perceive such exposure, indicating potential gaps between perceived and actual risks. Addressing these findings through tailored education and risk communication strategies is crucial for promoting sustainable agricultural practices and improving environmental stewardship among paddy rice farmers in Nigeria.
Based on the findings of this study, the low adoption rate underscores the need for substantial improvements in promoting environmental and climate-related practices. Literature supports the critical role of innovation in agriculture for environmental sustainability and climate resilience. For instance, the adoption of ecological innovations, such as integrated pest management and precision agriculture, is essential for reducing pesticide use and minimizing environmental contamination (Smith et al., 2018; Gomiero et al., 2011).
The findings that 58.5% of farmers are aware of climate change and contamination risks, while 41.45% lack such awareness, highlight a need for targeted educational interventions. According to Van Meensel et al. (2019), farmer education and support programs are crucial for promoting sustainable practices and enhancing resilience to climate risks. Enhancing awareness and providing comprehensive training can bridge the knowledge gap and encourage the adoption of sustainable practices.
The perception of exposure to toxic elements varies among farmers, with 29.69% feeling at risk. This perception can significantly influence the adoption of mitigation strategies. Studies show that perceived risk is a crucial factor in motivating behavior change and the implementation of risk management practices (Rogers, 1983). Conversely, the majority (70.31%) do not perceive such exposure, indicating a disconnect between perceived and actual risks. Effective risk communication strategies are needed to align farmers' perceptions with actual environmental hazards (Bostrom, 2003).
Addressing the gaps identified in the study through tailored education, training, and incentives for ecological innovation is vital. Efforts to raise awareness, provide technical support, and facilitate access to resources can overcome barriers such as cost concerns and regulatory uncertainties, promoting wider adoption of innovative practices (Naeem et al., 2020). By addressing these factors, we can foster improved environmental stewardship and resilience in paddy rice farming systems.
Table 3
Ecological Innovation to mitigate Paddy field contamination and climate risks in Paddy rice farming (n = 192)
Metrics | Questions | f | % |
Ecological Innovation | Initiated new and/or extraordinary efforts to mitigate or circumvent potential contamination and climate risks | Yes | 57 | 29.69 |
No | 135 | 70.31 |
Environmental Awareness | Awareness on climate change, how paddy fields get contaminated, potentially toxic elements released during rice farming activities | Yes | 112 | 58.5 |
No | 80 | 41.45 |
Perceived exposure | Perceived exposure to toxic elements from field contamination | Yes | 57 | 29.69 |
No | 135 | 70.31 |
Figure 1 indicates varying levels of adoption of innovative and sustainable practices among respondents to minimize chemical inputs, optimize soil nutrients, and maintain water efficiency. Improved fertilizer management and crop diversification were the most widely adopted practices, with 29 respondents emphasizing nutrient optimization and biodiversity. The use of organic matter and biocontrol agents was adopted by 15 respondents, reflecting a commitment to sustainable inputs and pest control. Conservation tillage, aimed at soil preservation, was adopted by 12 respondents, while improved water management practices were used by 10 respondents, indicating a focus on water efficiency. Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) had the lowest adoption rate, with only 3 respondents utilizing this specific irrigation technique whilst precision agriculture was not adopted. Improved fertilizer management and crop diversification rank highest in adoption, reflecting respondents' emphasis on nutrient optimization and biodiversity. Studies by Zhang et al. (2018) highlight the benefits of these practices in enhancing soil fertility and crop yield, promoting sustainable agricultural productivity.
The use of organic matter and biocontrol agents follows closely, indicating a strong commitment to sustainable inputs and pest control. Organic matter, such as compost and manure, improves soil structure, water retention, and nutrient supply (Drinkwater et al., 1998). Biocontrol agents offer an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, reducing pest populations without harming beneficial organisms (Gurr et al., 2016).
Conservation tillage is next in adoption, emphasizing its importance for soil preservation. This practice reduces erosion and enhances soil moisture, contributing to long-term soil health and sustainability (Lal, 2015). Similarly, improved water management practices also feature prominently, underscoring the focus on water efficiency. Efficient water use is crucial for sustainable agriculture, particularly in regions facing water scarcity. Techniques such as drip irrigation and rainwater harvesting can significantly improve water use efficiency (Fereres & Soriano, 2007).
Alternate wetting and drying (AWD) rank lowest in adoption, highlighting the challenges in utilizing this specific irrigation technique. Despite its benefits for water savings and reduced methane emissions in rice production, AWD requires precise timing and monitoring, which may hinder its widespread adoption (Lampayan et al., 2015). However, Precision agriculture was not adopted at all, pointing to significant barriers such as cost and technical expertise. Although precision agriculture offers potential benefits in terms of efficiency and productivity, it often requires substantial investment in technology and training (Schimmelpfennig, 2016).
From Fig. 2, Education shows a weak positive correlation with Satisfaction (0.179) and a very weak positive correlation with PPE use (0.100), while having a negligible negative correlation with Adoption (-0.008). Adoption has a very weak positive correlation with PPE use (0.050) and a very weak negative correlation with Satisfaction (-0.040). Satisfaction exhibits a weak positive correlation with PPE use (0.194). Overall, PPE use has weak positive correlations with all other variables. These correlations indicate some relationships among the variables, although they are generally weak, with the strongest correlation being between Satisfaction and PPE use (0.194), suggesting a slight tendency for higher satisfaction to be associated with increased PPE use, or vice versa. Education can lead to higher satisfaction levels by increasing awareness and understanding of best practices and benefits (DeVoe & Pfeffer, 2007; Ng & Feldman, 2009). Previous studies have shown that education improves awareness of health risks and safety practices (Omoyajowo et al, 2024b), which can slightly enhance PPE use (Ferguson et al., 2010). Nonetheless, various factors can the adoption of innovative practices beyond education, such as financial constraints, cultural factors, or access to resources (Rogers, 2003). However, the positive relationship between adoption and PPE use have supported the argument that innovative practices often come with increased awareness and adherence to safety protocols, though this relationship is minimal (McDonald et al., 2002). Whilst adoption of new practices does not necessarily translate to increased satisfaction, potentially due to the challenges and adjustments required (Rogers, 2003), higher satisfaction levels can lead to better adherence to safety protocols, as satisfied individuals are generally more engaged and compliant with recommended practices (Huang et al., 2016). The positive relationship between increased use of PPE and higher satisfaction could indicate that satisfied individuals are more motivated to follow safety guidelines (Huang et al., 2016).
Results showed that out of 84 respondents who have experienced work-related injuries or illness,28% had suffered cuts, abrasion and puncture wounds, about 13% had musculoskeletal injuries, 10% had heat stress, 9 respondents have experienced bite from insects and animals, only 1 respondent had hearing loss and respiratory issues and about 5.7% have experienced chemical poisoning and eye injuries.Leigh et al. (2001) highlights that cuts and punctures are among the most common injuries in these environments, often resulting from handling equipment or accidental contact with sharp objects. According to Punnett and Wegman (2004), musculoskeletal disorders are a significant concern in occupations involving manual labour, contributing to substantial morbidity and work-related disability. Agricultural workers are particularly susceptible due to prolonged exposure to the sun and physical activity. Jackson and Rosenberg (2010) note that heat stress can lead to heat exhaustion, heat stroke, and other heat-related illnesses, emphasizing the importance of adequate hydration and rest breaks. Exposure to wildlife and pests can result in bites and stings, which can sometimes lead to more severe health issues if not promptly treated. Benjamini et al. (2006) discuss the risks associated with insect bites, including allergic reactions and vector-borne diseases. Exposure to loud machinery and dust can lead to hearing loss and respiratory illnesses. Teschke et al. (1999) highlights that chronic exposure to high noise levels and respiratory irritants in the workplace can lead to hearing loss and respiratory problems. Nonetheless, exposure to chemicals can result in poisoning, skin irritation, and eye injuries. Adesuyi et al (2018) underscore the importance of proper handling, storage, and use of personal protective equipment (PPE) to prevent such incidents.
When respondents were asked how they would address work-related injuries or illness, interestingly, 42.7% of the total respondents uses first aid supplies and equipment on the farm to treat minor injuries, while about 20% admitted to seeking medical attention from local healthcare providers or hospitals. About 12% wears protective equipment to prevent injuries or exposure to hazardous substances and, about 7% adopt safe working practices to reduce the risk of injuries or illness.Only few of the respondents (3.1%) attends training and education for farm workers on safety practices and procedures to prevent injuries or illnesses; about 5.2% of the respondents take conscious effort at regularly maintaining and inspecting farm equipment and machinery to ensure proper functioning and safety.Also, about 3.1% of the respondents try to reduce the use of pesticides and chemical fertilizer by adopting organic and natural farming methods, 5.2% of the respondents implement methods to reduce risks and only 1% of respondents seek support from local agricultural organizations or government agencies to address safety and health concerns on the farm.
The most common approach, that respondent chose is utilizing first aid supplies and equipment. This will be a valuable tool to treat minor injuries or even manage more critical ones before receiving medical treatment. Having first aid kits readily available and accessible is crucial in managing minor injuries and preventing complications (Miller and Singo, 2020). Studies by Hsieh et al. (2018) highlight the role of healthcare services in managing occupational injuries and emphasize the need for accessible medical care for agricultural workers. More importantly to note, is that respondents in this study would rather prefer to opt for first aid rather than seeking appropriate medical care, this behaviour might be developed when cost of medical care is high and not affordable. The use of protective equipment, (PPE) is a preventive measure against injuries and hazardous substance exposure and the fact that only few people rather than the majority choosing it reflects that more education on PPE should be provided to farmers. This is because the efficacy of personal protective equipment (PPE) in reducing work-related injuries is well-documented. A recent study by Huang et al. (2021) confirms that wearing appropriate PPE significantly decreases the risk of injuries and illnesses in agricultural settings. More so, Safe working practices, such as proper handling techniques and adherence to safety protocols, are critical in reducing workplace hazards. A study by Salvatore et al. (2019) emphasizes that training workers in safe practices can substantially reduce injury rates. Findings by Strong et al. (2020) indicates that continuous safety training significantly improves workers' ability to recognize and avoid hazards. Whilst a study by Schenker et al. (2017) shows that systematic equipment maintenance reduces the incidence of machinery-related injuries. Literature by Gomiero et al. (2018) supports the benefits of organic farming in minimizing health risks and enhancing ecological balance because of great reductions in pesticides, and chemical fertilisers’ usage. The study by Hofmann et al. (2019) highlights the effectiveness of risk management techniques in creating safer work environments. Research by Leigh et al. (2018) emphasizes the role of government programs and agricultural organizations in promoting farm safety and providing necessary support.
The intercept represents the log odds of the event when all predictors are zero. In this case, the odds ratio is 0.007, indicating a very low odds of the event (dependent variable) occurring. The model appears to fit the data well, as indicated by goodness-of-fit statistics (67.4% (Nagelkerke R2) and 46.9% (Cox and Snell R2) variations in the dependent variable). Also, the null hypothesis for the Hosmer-Lemeshow test is that the model fits well. This shows that the logistic regression model is appropriate for explaining the relationship between the dependent and the independent variables. The respondents’ who have adopted ecological innovations or sustainable farming techniques expressed higher satisfaction with such practices (β = 2.452, χ2 = 20.891; p < 0.05). This aligns with findings from Pretty et al. (2006), who noted that sustainable agricultural practices often lead to improved economic, environmental, and social outcomes, thereby enhancing farmer satisfaction. Respondentswho adopted ecological innovations or sustainable farming techniques are 11.613 times more likely to be satisfied with such effort. Similarly, the respondents’ exposure level to pesticides and chemicals positively influenced their satisfaction on the implementation of safety practices on the farm (β = 1.407, χ2 = 5.882; p < 0.05). The result indicates that respondents who have had prior exposure to pesticides and chemicals are 4.084 times more likely to be satisfied with the result of implementing. This finding is supported by literature indicating that individuals with prior exposure to occupational hazards are more appreciative of and compliant with safety interventions (Mekonnen & Agonafir, 2002).
Table 4
a: Model Summary for the relationship between adopted ecological innovations or sustainable farming techniques expressed higher satisfaction
Model Summary |
Step | -2 Log likelihood | Cox & Snell R Square | Nagelkerke R Square |
1 | 106.783a | .469 | .674 |
a. Estimation terminated at iteration number 7 because parameter estimates changed by less than .001. |
Table 4
b: Ecological innovations against satisfaction: Hosmer and Lemeshow Test
Hosmer and Lemeshow Test |
Step | Chi-square | df | Sig. |
1 | 10.739 | 5 | .057 |
Table 4
c: relationship between adopted farmers; environmental awareness, adoption of ecological innovation, farmers’ exposure to toxic chemicals
Predictor | β | SE | Wald (χ2) | P value | Exp (β) |
Intercept | -4.930 | .902 | 29.888 | .000 | .007 |
Farmers’ environmental awareness | 1.649 | .851 | 3.752 | .053 | 5.200 |
Farmers’ exposure* | 1.407 | .580 | 5.882 | .015 | 4.084 |
Adoption of Ecological Innovation | 2.452 | .536 | 20.891 | .000 | 11.613 |
The Table 4c below shows us that the estimated model is now:
logit (Satisfaction adopting safety practices) = -4.930 + 1.649*Farmers’ environmental awareness + 1.407*Farmers exposure level + 2.452* Adoption of Ecological Innovation