The variation in microbial respiration can be interpreted as a direct reflection of soil conditions. The suppression or stimulation of microbial activity in response to herbicides indicates the influence of these chemicals and their broader impact on soil biological functions [29]. A decrease in microbial respiration suggests a reduction in the efficiency of organic matter decomposition, which could affect soil fertility and the availability of essential nutrients for plant development. For instance, Zhang et al. [30] highlight that diminished microbial activity correlates with lower nutrient cycling, which can lead to nutrient deficiencies in plants. Similarly, findings from Matei et al. [31] suggest that reduced microbial respiration can disrupt the balance of soil ecosystems, further impairing nutrient availability. Furthermore, Wang and Kuzyakov [32] emphasize that the efficiency of organic matter decomposition is vital for maintaining soil health and fertility, as it directly influences the nutrient supply to plants. These studies underscore the importance of microbial respiration in sustaining soil fertility and highlight the potential consequences of its decline on agricultural productivity and ecosystem health.
Several synthetic chemical compounds are employed in agricultural practices for different purposes and at varying concentrations affecting the physiology of soil microorganisms [33]. The concentration of 1.3 mg/kg of diquat was selected for the T1 treatment, as it is considered the Predicted Environmental Concentration, according to Druart et al. [34]. Furthermore, it matches the average concentration that the manufacturer recommends for field use.
Over the 28-day incubation period, four samples were taken from the NaOH solutions that served as carbon dioxide traps. The estimated results of CO₂ production, obtained through the sum of the weekly values (Fig. 1), revealed significant variations between the treatments analyzed. The control group exhibited an average of 64.72 mg of CO₂ released, while T1, with a concentration of 1.3 mg/kg of diquat, recorded a slightly lower average value of 61.90 mg. However, no statistically significant difference was observed between the two groups. Given that the concentration employed in the T1 treatment was the same as that recommended by the manufacturer for field application of the herbicide and that it is also the same Predicted Environmental Concentration determined by Druart et al. [34], the results demonstrate that a first application of the product following the instructions set out in the user manual does not significantly disrupt microbial activity in pristine soil. The observed result may indicate tolerance or adaptation of the soil microorganisms to the herbicide concentration.
However, an analysis of treatments T2 and T3, in which concentrations corresponding to twice and three times the Predicted Environmental Concentration were applied, revealed a significant reduction in CO₂ capture. Mean values for T2 and T3 were 44.98 and 37.14 mg, respectively, with no statistically significant difference between the two. This indicates that the utilization of concentrations exceeding the Predicted Environmental Concentration results in inhibitory effects that are sufficient to cause similar reductions in respiratory activity among soil microorganisms.
The reduction in microbial activity observed in treatments T2 and T3 may be indicative of an inhibitory effect on microbial activity in the soil as the concentration of the herbicide increases. However, the lack of a significant difference between T2 and T3 suggests that the inhibitory effect may be approaching saturation at the T2 concentration (2.6 mg/kg of diquat). This highlights the need for further detailed evaluations of this dose-response relationship. The results of the sums indicate that the herbicide concentrations used in the two treatments, T2 and T3, when used repeatedly, tend to maintain the negative interference in soil microbial activity. The findings indicate a negative impact on nutrient cycling, emphasizing the necessity for agricultural practices that aim to reduce the utilization of herbicides in concentrations that exceed environmentally acceptable limits. This understanding is of significant importance in the context of agricultural sustainability, as it provides insights into the preservation of soil efficiency [35, 36].
Brazil is one of the world's most significant agricultural producers and also one of the largest consumers of pesticides [37]. The combination of governmental incentives for the widespread use of pesticides and the lack of training and education programs for safe use from industries or government has increased the vulnerability of farmers and the environment [38–40]. Smallholder and family farmers have reported difficulties in reading and understanding pesticide labels due to the use of technical language, small font size and images that are difficult to comprehend. Low education level, coupled with a lack of technical support and training in occupational safety, impairs the ability to perceive risk and to adopt protective measures for the health and environment [41, 42]. Buralli et al. [42] determined that these factors contribute to the inappropriate use of pesticides without observance of agronomic prescriptions, which can culminate in contamination of farmers and the environment.
In addition to reducing microbial activity in the soil (Fig. 1), exposure to large amounts of diquat may result in severe poisoning with symptoms including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and central nervous system manifestations in farmers. The kidney is the most frequently impaired organ, with reports of lung injuries and a few cases of multiple organ failure caused by diquat [43, 44]. The typical monthly income of family farmers is relatively low [42, 45, 46], which renders them susceptible to illnesses that incapacitate them from working. Furthermore, the long-term damage that can result from the inappropriate use of pesticides in the soil can lead to a reduction in production, which in turn can result in a reduction in average family income. Situations such as these have the potential to be determinative in the occurrence of rural exodus. Given that family farming in Brazil is responsible for the production of the majority of food consumed by the Brazilian population [47], it is incumbent upon the state to implement public policies that facilitate the maintenance of these families on their rural properties and the continued practice of agriculture.
The accumulation of toxic compounds in soil as a consequence of intensive pesticide use represents a significant environmental concern. The prolonged application of pesticides can result in the persistence of harmful residues in the soil, which may harm soil health and biodiversity. In their study, Bucheli et al. [48] emphasize that certain pesticides can remain in the soil for extended periods, resulting in bioaccumulation and potential toxicity to non-target organisms. The persistence of non-biodegradable toxic products and the chemical degradation of soil over time are indicative of the necessity for the implementation of sustainable practices in order to mitigate the environmental damage caused by pesticides.
The findings of Jezierska-Tys and Rutkowska [49] indicate that the utilization of Reglone® results in fluctuations in the concentration of nitrate in the soil, although it does not induce disturbances in the ammonification and nitrification processes. In their study, Jezierska-Tys and Rutkowska [50] observed that while Reglone® increased bacterial and fungal populations, as well as an increase in the enzymatic activity of proteases and ureases in the soil, its use led to a reduction in the activity of enzymes such as dehydrogenase and alkaline phosphatase. These findings suggest that the active ingredient, diquat, may induce biochemical disruption in the soil microbiota.
By gaining insight into the impact of agricultural practices, including herbicide application, on microbial activity, soil fertility and human health, farmers can modify their strategies to reduce any adverse effects. This suggests a more balanced approach that preserves soil microbial biodiversity, thereby maintaining its vital role in nutrient cycling, improving soil structure, and maintaining soil quality [51]. In this regard, the implementation of awareness-raising and technical training initiatives by public institutions and private enterprises can facilitate the dissemination of information and the adaptation of agricultural practices to the needs of family farmers. Such measures can assist these farmers in the implementation of appropriate management strategies, to maintain productivity and retain their presence in the agricultural sector.
The results of the weekly release of CO₂ demonstrate that the ecological disturbance in the soil microbial community caused by the insertion of the herbicide into the soil occurs from the first seven days of incubation (Fig. 2). Over time, an increase in the divergence of microbial activity between the treatments is observed, as evidenced by the cumulative values obtained. The microbial activity of treatments T2 and T3 consistently remained below the activity recorded in treatments Control and T1. This suggests that the inhibitory effect of Reglone® on the soil microbial community is rapid and sustained following its application. As stated by the manufacturer [52], diquat is resistant to microbial degradation and the time of soil dissipation half-life exceeds three years. This could explain why microbial activity values remained low over the four-week evaluation period since soil microorganisms do not catabolize the pesticide, allowing it to continue exerting its toxicity potential.
This study provides a more comprehensive understanding of soil microbial activity, which can be used to infer more sustainable measures that can be adopted by producers and recommended by government agencies that promote family farming. The existing literature on the use of the herbicide Reglone® and its impact on soil microbial activity is limited. Consequently, the findings presented here emphasize the necessity for a rigorous assessment of the herbicide's use, to safeguard soil health and functionality [49, 53].
Given the considerable inhibitory effect observed between T2 and T3, further studies are required to gain a deeper understanding of the dose-response relationship of Reglone® on microbial activity in the soil. It is of the greatest importance to establish safe application limits that will minimize any adverse impacts on soil quality in the long term, without compromising soil quality. The implementation of agricultural strategies aimed at reducing the use of herbicides or choosing less harmful alternatives represents a significant aspect of the broader effort to preserve biodiversity and maintain the functionality of agricultural soils [54, 55]. In this context, many discussions have been conducted in the literature regarding integrated weed management (IWM), an approach that employs a combination of chemical and non-chemical control methods [56–58]. This approach entails the rational utilization of herbicides in conjunction with non-chemical alternatives. The efficacy of this approach has been demonstrated in the control of invasive weeds [15] and those exhibiting resistance [59].