Missing pixel imputation is a critical task in image processing, where the presence of high percentages of missing pixels can significantly degrade the performance of downstream tasks such as image segmentation and object detection. This paper introduces a novel approach for missing pixel imputation based on Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs). We propose a new GAN architecture incorporating an identity module and a sperm motility-inspired heuristic during the filtration process to optimize the selection of pixels used in reconstructing missing data. The intelligent sperm motility heuristic navigates the image's pixel space, identifying the most influential neighboring pixels for accurate imputation. Our approach includes three key modifications: (1) integration of an identity module within the GAN architecture to mitigate the vanishing gradient problem; (2) introduction of a metaheuristic algorithm based on sperm motility to select the top 10 pixels that most effectively contribute to the generation of the missing pixel; and (3) the implementation of an adaptive interval mechanism between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of the selected pixels, enhancing the generator's efficiency and ensuring the coherence of the imputed pixels with the surrounding image context. We evaluate the proposed method on three distinct datasets (Energy Images, NREL Solar Images and NREL Wind Turbine Dataset), demonstrating its superior performance in maintaining pixel integrity during the imputation process. Our experiments also confirm the approach's effectiveness in addressing common challenges in GANs, such as mode collapse and vanishing gradients, across various GAN architectures.
Article
Novel GSIP: GAN-based Sperm-Inspired Pixel Imputation for Robust Energy Image Reconstruction
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4966043/v1
This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License
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pixel imputation
GANs
identity block
intelligent sperm attitude
meta heuristics
energy source images
In the domain of image processing, the integrity of pixel data is paramount for the success of various tasks, including image segmentation, object detection, and image reconstruction [1-5]. Missing pixels, whether due to noise, sensor errors, or data corruption, can severely impair the performance of these tasks. Imputation of missing pixels is, therefore, a critical preprocessing step, aimed at restoring the lost information to ensure accurate and reliable downstream analysis [6,7].
Traditional methods for missing pixel imputation, such as interpolation and inpainting, often fall short in complex scenarios where large portions of pixel data are missing or where the surrounding pixel context is not sufficient for accurate reconstruction [8, 9]. These methods struggle with maintaining the fine details and structural coherence of images, leading to artifacts that negatively impact subsequent image processing tasks [10].
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) have emerged as a powerful tool in the realm of image processing, particularly in tasks involving image synthesis, enhancement, and imputation [11]. GANs are designed to generate new data points that are indistinguishable from the original data, making them highly suitable for reconstructing missing pixels. However, standard GAN architectures are not without their limitations, especially when dealing with high percentages of missing data [12, 13].
One of the critical challenges faced by GANs, particularly during the training process, is the vanishing gradient problem [14]. This issue occurs when the gradient updates become exceedingly small, hindering the learning process of the generator network [15]. This problem is exacerbated in deep architectures, where the information from the loss function fails to propagate effectively back through the network layers. Addressing this problem is essential for improving the performance of GANs in tasks like missing pixel imputation.
Another significant challenge in GANs is mode collapse [16], where the generator fails to capture the full diversity of the data distribution, leading to the generation of similar or identical outputs [17]. This phenomenon is particularly detrimental in the context of missing pixel imputation, where diverse and contextually accurate pixel generation is crucial. Addressing mode collapse is, therefore, a key focus in advancing GAN-based imputation methods.
In this paper, we propose a novel GAN architecture that integrates an identity module designed to tackle the vanishing gradient problem. The identity module ensures that the gradients are preserved across the network layers, thereby facilitating more effective learning and improving the overall quality of the generated pixels. This architectural modification not only enhances the robustness of the GAN but also contributes to solving the challenges associated with deep networks in pixel imputation tasks.
A unique aspect of our approach is the incorporation of a metaheuristic algorithm inspired by sperm motility, which guides the selection of pixels used in the imputation process. The sperm motility heuristic simulates the natural movement of sperm cells, which are known for their ability to navigate complex environments to reach their target. By mimicking this intelligent navigation, our algorithm identifies the most relevant and influential pixels that should be used in the reconstruction of missing data, thereby enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of the imputation process.
In addition to the identity module and sperm motility heuristic, we introduce a third innovation: an adaptive interval mechanism. This mechanism creates a dynamic interval between the real value of the discriminator and the weighted average of the selected pixels. The adaptive interval plays a crucial role in improving the generator's efficiency by reducing the time required for pixel generation while ensuring that the generated pixels are coherent with the surrounding image context. This mechanism not only speeds up the imputation process but also enhances the overall quality of the imputed images.
To validate the effectiveness of our proposed approach, we conducted extensive experiments on three distinct datasets, each representing different types of image data and varying levels of complexity. Our results demonstrate significant improvements in pixel integrity, as well as a marked reduction in common GAN-related issues such as mode collapse and vanishing gradients. The experimental outcomes provide strong evidence of the robustness and reliability of our method in addressing the challenges of missing pixel imputation.
Contributions of the Paper:
1. Novel GAN Architecture with Identity Module:
o The paper introduces a new GAN architecture that integrates an identity module designed to address the vanishing gradient problem. This module ensures better gradient flow throughout the network, enhancing the training stability and improving the quality of pixel imputation.
2. Sperm Motility-Inspired Metaheuristic Algorithm:
o A metaheuristic algorithm inspired by sperm motility is proposed to guide the selection of the most influential neighboring pixels during the imputation process. This biologically inspired approach optimizes the pixel selection process, leading to more accurate and contextually coherent imputed pixels.
3. Adaptive Interval Mechanism:
o The paper introduces an adaptive interval mechanism between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of the selected pixels. This mechanism enhances the generator’s efficiency, reduces the time required for pixel generation, and ensures the integrity of the imputed pixels with respect to the surrounding image context.
4. Comprehensive Experimental Validation:
o Extensive experiments are conducted on three distinct datasets, demonstrating the effectiveness of the proposed approach in solving common GAN issues like mode collapse and vanishing gradients. The results show significant improvements in pixel integrity and overall image quality.
5. Application to Diverse Image Processing Tasks:
o The proposed method is applicable to a wide range of image processing tasks, particularly in scenarios where high levels of missing data are present. The contributions extend beyond imputation, potentially benefiting other areas such as image enhancement and reconstruction.
Novelty of the Paper:
1. Integration of Biological Inspiration into GANs:
o The novelty of this paper lies in the unique integration of a sperm motility-inspired heuristic into the GAN framework. This approach is unprecedented in the field and provides a novel solution to the challenge of selecting the most relevant pixels for imputation.
2. Combined Architectural Innovations:
o The combination of the identity module, sperm motility heuristic, and adaptive interval mechanism within a single GAN framework represents a novel architectural innovation. This holistic approach addresses multiple challenges simultaneously, making it a significant advancement in the domain of image processing.
3. Addressing GAN-Specific Issues:
o The paper tackles two of the most persistent issues in GANs—mode collapse and the vanishing gradient problem—by proposing specific modifications tailored to improve the performance of GANs in the context of missing pixel imputation. The novel solutions presented have the potential to be adapted to other GAN-based tasks as well.
4. Efficiency and Integrity in Pixel Imputation:
o The proposed method not only enhances the accuracy of missing pixel imputation but also significantly reduces the computational time required for pixel generation. The approach ensures that the imputed pixels maintain high integrity with respect to the overall image structure, which is a novel contribution to the efficiency and quality of GAN-based imputation techniques.
The organization of this paper is structured as follows: Section 2 presents a detailed review of related work, examining existing approaches for missing pixel imputation and the application of Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) in image processing, along with the challenges they face, such as the vanishing gradient problem and mode collapse. Section 3 outlines the proposed methodology, introducing our novel GAN architecture, the integration of an identity module, the sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic, and the adaptive interval mechanism designed to enhance imputation accuracy and efficiency. Section 4 discusses the experimental results, comparing the performance of our approach with existing methods and analyzing its effectiveness in solving the identified challenges. Section 5 concludes the paper, summarizing the key findings, contributions, and implications of the work, and offering insights into potential future research directions and applications of the proposed approach.
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) have become a cornerstone in the field of image processing, particularly in tasks requiring high-quality image synthesis, enhancement, and imputation. Since their introduction, GANs have been applied to various domains, including image inpainting, super-resolution, and, more recently, missing pixel imputation. This section reviews the most relevant advancements in GAN-based missing data imputation from 2021 to 2024, highlighting key contributions and identifying gaps that our work aims to address.
In 2021, a study by Chen et al. [18] explored a novel GAN architecture designed to improve the imputation of missing data in medical images. Their approach, known as MedGAN, incorporated domain-specific loss functions tailored for preserving anatomical correctness. Despite its success in the medical field, MedGAN struggled with generalizability when applied to non-medical datasets, particularly those with complex textures and patterns.
Following this, Zhao et al. (2022) [19] proposed a multi-scale GAN model aimed at tackling the issue of mode collapse, a common problem where the generator produces limited variations of the output. Their multi-scale approach enhanced the diversity of generated outputs by incorporating several discriminator networks operating at different image scales. While effective in reducing mode collapse, the increased computational cost and training complexity were significant drawbacks, limiting its practicality in real-world applications.
In the same year, Nguyen et al. [20] introduced a GAN variant utilizing a self-attention mechanism to focus on critical regions of an image during imputation. This attention-based GAN improved the contextual relevance of imputed pixels, particularly in images with highly variable content. However, the reliance on extensive pre-training and fine-tuning made this model less accessible for datasets with limited labeled data.
By 2023, researchers had started to integrate metaheuristic algorithms with GANs to optimize pixel selection during imputation. A notable example is the work by Patel et al., [21] who used a particle swarm optimization (PSO) algorithm within the GAN framework. Their model demonstrated substantial improvements in imputation accuracy, especially in datasets with irregularly missing data. However, the integration of PSO increased the complexity of the model, making it less interpretable and harder to implement.
Another significant advancement was introduced by Liu et al. in 2024, [22] where they proposed a GAN architecture that leverages a hybrid loss function combining adversarial loss with a structural similarity index (SSIM). This approach aimed to enhance the visual quality of imputed pixels while maintaining structural coherence. The model showed promising results in maintaining the balance between pixel accuracy and visual quality, although the computational demands remained a critical challenge.
Despite these advancements, existing GAN-based methods for missing pixel imputation often struggle with two persistent issues: the vanishing gradient problem and mode collapse [23-27]. The vanishing gradient problem, particularly prevalent in deep networks, hinders the effective training of GANs by diminishing gradient updates during backpropagation. Mode collapse, on the other hand, restricts the diversity of generated outputs, leading to repetitive and less varied imputation results.
Our proposed approach addresses these limitations through several innovative strategies. First, we introduce an identity block within the GAN architecture to mitigate the vanishing gradient problem, ensuring better gradient flow and more stable training. This approach is particularly novel in its application to missing pixel imputation, as it allows for more effective learning in deep networks. our method also incorporate a metaheuristic algorithm inspired by sperm motility, which intelligently selects the most influential neighboring pixels for imputation. This biologically inspired approach enhances the accuracy and context-awareness of the imputed pixels, setting it apart from traditional heuristic methods. We also introduce an adaptive interval mechanism that dynamically adjusts the interval between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of selected pixels. This mechanism not only accelerates the imputation process but also ensures that the imputed pixels are coherent with the surrounding image context, reducing artifacts and improving overall image quality. While our method significantly improves the imputation process, it is not without its challenges. The integration of a sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic, although innovative, introduces additional computational complexity, which may limit its scalability for large-scale datasets. Moreover, the adaptive interval mechanism, while effective in maintaining pixel coherence, requires careful calibration to avoid overfitting, particularly in datasets with high variability.
Our methodology for missing pixel imputation using GANs incorporates several innovative components aimed at improving both the accuracy and contextual relevance of the imputed data. The core of our approach is a GAN architecture augmented with an identity block to address the vanishing gradient problem and a sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic for intelligent pixel selection. Additionally, we introduce an adaptive interval mechanism to dynamically adjust pixel selection and ensure coherence with the surrounding image context. This combination of techniques allows our model to achieve superior performance in imputation tasks, especially when dealing with irregularly missing data.
The pseudocode outlines the key steps of our GAN-based methodology for missing pixel imputation. The process begins by initializing the GAN model, which includes an identity block in the generator to maintain effective gradient flow during training. The input image with missing pixels is then processed, where for each missing pixel, the most influential neighboring pixels are selected using a sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic. These selected pixels are used to calculate a weighted average, which informs the generator's imputation process. The generator then produces imputed pixel values, ensuring stable training through the identity block. The discriminator evaluates the generated image by calculating adversarial loss and structural similarity to maintain visual and structural integrity. An adaptive interval mechanism dynamically adjusts pixel selection to ensure coherence with the surrounding image context. The networks are iteratively updated until the imputation reaches the desired quality, resulting in a final imputed image that is both accurate and contextually consistent.
Main Steps of the Methodology
1. Initialize the GAN model with an identity block in the generator network to maintain gradient flow.
2. Load the input image with missing pixels.
For each missing pixel:
a. Identify the neighboring pixels.
b. Apply the sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic to select the most influential neighboring pixels.
c. Calculate the weighted average of the selected neighboring pixels.
3. Generate the imputed pixel values using the generator network:
a. Pass the input image through the generator.
b. Incorporate the identity block to ensure stable training.
4. Use the discriminator network to evaluate the generated image:
a. Calculate the adversarial loss.
b. Compute the structural similarity index (SSIM) to maintain the visual quality and structural integrity.
5. Implement the adaptive interval mechanism:
a. Dynamically adjust the interval between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of selected pixels.
b. Ensure pixel coherence with the surrounding context.
6. Update the generator and discriminator networks based on the loss functions.
7. Repeat the process until the imputation quality converges or reaches the desired level of accuracy.
8. Output the final imputed image.
3.1 The dataset
The paper evaluates the approach across three different datasets for energy images Energy Images [28], NREL Solar Images [29] and NREL Wind Turbine [30] Dataset. The Open Energy Images dataset is a large collection of over 240,000 annotated images covering a diverse range of energy infrastructure and technologies, including power plants, renewable energy installations, and energy distribution networks. The NREL Solar Images dataset provides over 4,000 categorized and labeled images specifically focused on solar photovoltaic systems, while the NREL Wind Turbine Dataset contains around 5,000 images of wind turbines with annotated bounding boxes. Together, these three datasets offer a comprehensive visual resource for researchers and practitioners working on energy-related computer vision and machine learning applications, enabling the study of different energy generation, distribution, and utilization systems through high-quality, well-annotated image data. The breadth of coverage, detailed metadata, and accessibility of these datasets make them valuable tools for advancing research and development in the energy domain.
3.2 GANs architecture with the identity block
In our methodology, the Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) serves as the core framework for missing pixel imputation. The GAN architecture is composed of two primary components: the Generator and the Discriminator. The Generator is responsible for producing plausible pixel values that can seamlessly fill in the missing regions of an image, while the Discriminator evaluates the authenticity of these generated pixels by distinguishing between the real (original) and fake (imputed) pixels. Our GAN model is enhanced with an identity block within the Generator to ensure stable gradient flow, which addresses the vanishing gradient problem often encountered in deep networks. Additionally, the Discriminator is augmented with structural similarity metrics to preserve the visual quality and integrity of the images. This architecture enables the GAN to generate highly realistic and contextually appropriate imputations, even in challenging scenarios with irregularly missing data. Table. 1 shows the architecture of GANs with the identity block.
Table (1): architecture of the GANs architecture with identity block
|
Layer |
Generator |
Discriminator |
|
Input |
Image with missing pixels |
Full image (real or generated) |
|
Convolutional Layer 1 |
64 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU, stride 1 |
64 filters, 3x3 kernel, Leaky ReLU, stride 2 |
|
Convolutional Layer 2 |
128 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU, stride 2 |
128 filters, 3x3 kernel, Leaky ReLU, stride 2 |
|
Batch Normalization 1 |
Applied after Conv Layer 2 |
Applied after Conv Layer 2 |
|
Convolutional Layer 3 |
256 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU, stride 2 |
256 filters, 3x3 kernel, Leaky ReLU, stride 2 |
|
Identity Block |
Skip connection with 2x 3x3 Conv, ReLU |
Not Applicable |
|
Batch Normalization 2 |
Applied after Identity Block |
Applied after Conv Layer 3 |
|
Deconvolutional Layer 1 |
128 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU, stride 2 |
Not Applicable |
|
Deconvolutional Layer 2 |
64 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU, stride 2 |
Not Applicable |
|
Output Layer |
3 channels, 3x3 kernel, Sigmoid |
1 unit (real/fake), Sigmoid |
Generator pseudocode
1. Initialize Generator:
a. Set up Conv2D Layer 1 with 64 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 1, ReLU activation.
b. Set up Conv2D Layer 2 with 128 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, ReLU activation.
c. Apply Batch Normalization after Conv2D Layer 2.
d. Set up Conv2D Layer 3 with 256 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, ReLU activation.
2. Implement Identity Block:
a. Copy input from Conv2D Layer 3 as identity_input.
b. Apply Conv2D with 256 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU activation (first part of identity block).
c. Apply Conv2D with 256 filters, 3x3 kernel, ReLU activation (second part of identity block).
d. Add identity_input to the output of the second Conv2D (skip connection).
e. Apply Batch Normalization after the identity block.
3. Implement Deconvolution Layers:
a. Apply Deconv2D Layer 1 with 128 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, ReLU activation.
b. Apply Deconv2D Layer 2 with 64 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, ReLU activation.
4. Output Layer:
a. Apply Conv2D with 3 filters, 3x3 kernel, Sigmoid activation to produce final output image.
5. Return the output image.
Discriminator pseudocode
1. Initialize Discriminator:
a. Set up Conv2D Layer 1 with 64 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, LeakyReLU activation.
b. Set up Conv2D Layer 2 with 128 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, LeakyReLU activation.
c. Apply Batch Normalization after Conv2D Layer 2.
d. Set up Conv2D Layer 3 with 256 filters, 3x3 kernel, stride 2, LeakyReLU activation.
e. Apply Batch Normalization after Conv2D Layer 3.
2. Output Layer:
a. Apply Conv2D with 1 filter, 3x3 kernel, Sigmoid activation to produce real/fake classification.
3. Return the classification result.
3.3 Motility Attitude During Filtration approach
In our methodology, the concept of Sperm Motility Attitude during Filtration is employed as a metaheuristic approach to enhance the process of missing pixel imputation within the GAN framework. This technique draws inspiration from the natural movement patterns of sperm cells, which are characterized by their dynamic and goal-oriented navigation. By mimicking these motility behaviors, the algorithm iteratively refines the selection of neighboring pixels to effectively fill in the missing regions of an image. The strategy involves evaluating potential pixel values based on their proximity and relevance to the missing data, much like how sperm cells assess and respond to environmental cues during navigation. This biologically inspired method ensures that the imputed pixels are not only contextually appropriate but also maintain the visual integrity and coherence of the entire image, leading to more realistic and accurate imputation results.
In our methodology, we integrate the Sperm Motility Attitude During Filtration into the Generative Adversarial Network (GAN) architecture to optimize the imputation of missing pixels in images. The architecture is composed of two main components: the Generator and the Discriminator. The Generator is responsible for creating realistic pixel values to fill in the missing regions, while the Discriminator evaluates these generated pixels to determine their authenticity compared to real data.
The Sperm Motility Attitude is incorporated as a metaheuristic technique within the Generator. During the imputation process, this method simulates the dynamic and adaptive movement of sperm cells, allowing the algorithm to intelligently select and weigh neighboring pixels based on their relevance and proximity to the missing region. This adaptive filtering process helps the Generator produce more accurate and contextually appropriate pixel values.
The architecture also includes an identity block within the Generator, which is crucial for maintaining stable gradient flow during training, thereby preventing issues such as vanishing gradients. The identity block introduces skip connections that allow the input to bypass certain layers, which stabilizes the training process and ensures that the generated pixels are coherent with the surrounding context. Additionally, the Discriminator is enhanced with structural similarity metrics to ensure that the visual quality and integrity of the images are preserved.
Together, these components create a robust framework that leverages biologically inspired techniques and advanced deep learning architecture to achieve high-quality missing pixel imputation, even in complex scenarios with irregular missing data.
Motility Attitude During Filtration approach
1. Initialize Parameters
- Define `N` as the number of neighboring pixels to consider.
- Set the motility parameters: `motility_threshold`, `movement_vector`, `exploration_factor`.
2. Identify Candidate Pixels
- For the missing pixel `P_missing`, identify an initial set of neighboring pixels within a defined radius.
- Store these neighboring pixels in a list `Candidates`.
3. Apply Motility Attitude During Filtration
- Initialize an empty list `Selected_Pixels`.
- For each pixel `P_candidate` in `Candidates`:
a. **Evaluate Pixel Influence**:
- Calculate the influence of `P_candidate` on `P_missing` using a similarity metric (e.g., color intensity, texture similarity).
- Store the influence score `Influence(P_candidate)`.
b. Determine Movement Vector
- Calculate the movement vector `V_move` based on the influence score.
- If `Influence(P_candidate) > motility_threshold`:
- Update `V_move` to favor this candidate.
- Else:
- Adjust `V_move` to explore less influenced candidates (`V_move = V_move * exploration_factor`).
c. Evaluate Motility Decision:
- Compare the current `V_move` with previous vectors to decide on the motility (i.e., whether to continue considering this pixel or move to the next).
- If `V_move` stabilizes (i.e., the candidate shows consistent influence):
- Add `P_candidate` to `Selected_Pixels`.
4. Select Best Pixels for Imputation
- Sort `Selected_Pixels` based on their influence scores.
- Select the top `N` pixels from `Selected_Pixels` to be used in the imputation process.
5. Return Selected Pixels
- Output `Selected_Pixels` as the best pixels to influence the generation of `P_missing`.
Weighted average pixel calculation
1. Define function `ImputePixel(missing_pixel_location, image)`:
a. Initialize an empty list `neighboring_pixels`.
b. For each neighboring pixel around `missing_pixel_location`:
i. Calculate the distance between the neighboring pixel and the `missing_pixel_location`.
ii. Calculate the intensity difference between the neighboring pixel and the pixels surrounding the missing region.
iii. Assign a weight to the neighboring pixel based on the inverse of the distance and intensity difference (simulate sperm motility behavior).
iv. Store the neighboring pixel and its weight in `neighboring_pixels`.
c. Normalize the weights of all neighboring pixels so that the sum of weights equals 1.
2. Calculate the weighted average for the imputed pixel:
a. Initialize `imputed_value` to 0.
b. For each `pixel, weight` in `neighboring_pixels`:
i. Multiply the pixel value by its corresponding weight.
ii. Add the result to `imputed_value`.
3. Return the `imputed_value` as the value for the `missing_pixel_location`.
4. End function.
3.4 Adaptive interval mechanism of GANs with the identity block
The implementation of an adaptive interval mechanism between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of the selected pixels in our methodology enhances the robustness and accuracy of the imputation process. This mechanism dynamically adjusts the interval based on the evolving characteristics of the input data and the imputation context. By incorporating this adaptive strategy, the model ensures that the generated pixel is not only coherent with the immediate surrounding pixels but also aligns well with the broader image context. The discriminator's real value serves as a reference point, guiding the generator to produce more realistic and contextually appropriate pixels. Meanwhile, the weighted average of the selected pixels, informed by the Motility Attitude During Filtration approach, offers a nuanced understanding of the local pixel environment. The adaptive interval bridges these two aspects, allowing the model to fine-tune the imputation process in real-time, reducing the risk of generating artifacts or inconsistencies. This leads to a more seamless integration of the imputed pixels, enhancing the overall quality and realism of the reconstructed image.
The pseudocode outlines the implementation of an adaptive interval mechanism that optimizes the imputation of missing pixels by dynamically adjusting the relationship between the discriminator's real value and the weighted average of selected pixels. The process begins with the initialization of key parameters, including the interval that will be adjusted based on the performance of the model. The input image with missing pixels is then processed, where the best neighboring pixels are identified using the Motility Attitude During Filtration approach. These selected pixels are used to compute a weighted average, which serves as the initial estimate for the imputed pixel.
The imputed pixel is generated using the generator network and is then evaluated by the discriminator to obtain a real value. The core of the mechanism lies in calculating the difference between this real value and the weighted average. If this difference exceeds the adaptive interval, the weighted average is adjusted towards the discriminator's real value, ensuring that the generated pixel aligns more closely with the surrounding context. The adaptive interval is fine-tuned throughout the process, expanding or contracting based on the model's performance (loss function), which is continuously monitored. This iterative process continues until the imputation stabilizes, ensuring that the final output is both realistic and contextually accurate.
The architecture underpinning this pseudocode is based on a GAN framework enhanced with an adaptive interval mechanism and a biologically-inspired pixel selection process. The generator and discriminator form the core components of the GAN. The generator is responsible for producing imputed pixel values based on input from selected neighboring pixels, while the discriminator evaluates these generated pixels against real ones to guide the generator's learning process.
A key innovation in this architecture is the integration of the Motility Attitude During Filtration approach, which intelligently selects neighboring pixels to influence the imputation. This selection process is critical as it ensures that the pixels chosen for imputing the missing ones are contextually relevant and contribute meaningfully to the overall image quality.
The adaptive interval mechanism acts as a bridge between the discriminator's evaluations and the generator's outputs. By dynamically adjusting the interval based on the model's loss, the architecture ensures that the imputed pixels are not only visually coherent but also statistically aligned with the real data distribution. This approach prevents overfitting or underfitting by maintaining a balance between exploration and exploitation during the training process. As a result, the architecture is capable of producing high-quality, realistic imputations that are well-integrated with their surroundings, leading to superior performance in reconstructing images with missing data.
Adaptive interval mechanism of GANs
1. Initialize Parameters
- Set initial interval `adaptive_interval`.
- Define `learning_rate`, `adjustment_factor`, `threshold`.
- Initialize `previous_loss` and `current_loss` variables.
2. Load Input Image with Missing Pixels
- Identify missing pixels in the image.
- For each missing pixel:
- Identify and select the best neighboring pixels using the Motility Attitude During Filtration approach.
- Calculate the weighted average `Weighted_Avg_Pixel` of the selected neighboring pixels.
3. Generate Imputed Pixel
- Pass `Weighted_Avg_Pixel` to the generator.
- Generate imputed pixel `P_imputed`.
4. Evaluate Using Discriminator
- Pass `P_imputed` to the discriminator.
- Obtain the discriminator’s real value `D_real_value`.
- Calculate the loss `current_loss` between `D_real_value` and `P_imputed`.
5. Apply Adaptive Interval Mechanism
- Compute the interval difference `interval_diff`:
- `interval_diff = |D_real_value - Weighted_Avg_Pixel|`
- Adjust Adaptive Interval:
- If `current_loss` > `previous_loss`:
- Increase `adaptive_interval` by `adjustment_factor * learning_rate`.
- Else:
- Decrease `adaptive_interval` by `adjustment_factor * learning_rate`.
- Update `Weighted_Avg_Pixel`:
- If `interval_diff` > `adaptive_interval`:
- Adjust `Weighted_Avg_Pixel` towards `D_real_value`:
- `Weighted_Avg_Pixel = Weighted_Avg_Pixel + (adaptive_interval * sign(D_real_value - Weighted_Avg_Pixel))`
6. Update Networks
- Update the generator and discriminator networks based on `current_loss`.
- Store `current_loss` as `previous_loss` for the next iteration.
7. **Repeat Until Convergence**
- Continue the process until the imputed pixel stabilizes and the loss converges.
8. Output Final Imputed Image
- Return the image with the final imputed pixel values.
3.5 The evaluation Metrics
In our methodology, we employ several well-established metrics to comprehensively evaluate the performance of our proposed generative model for missing pixel imputation. First, we calculate the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) between the generated pixel values and the ground-truth, as shown in Equation (1). The RMSE provides a direct measurement of the reconstruction accuracy, allowing us to quantify how closely the generated pixels match the actual pixel values in the original images. Additionally, we compute the Inception Score (IS), defined in Equation (2), to assess the quality and diversity of the reconstructed images. The IS metric leverages a pre-trained Inception model to capture the semantic information and class-conditional probability distributions of the generated pixels, giving us insights into the fidelity and visual coherence of the imputed regions. Finally, we measure the Fréchet Inception Distance (FID), as described in Equation (3), to evaluate the similarity between the feature representations of the generated and real, complete images. The FID considers both the mean and covariance of the feature distributions, providing a holistic assessment of how closely the reconstructed images match the characteristics of the original data. Together, these complementary metrics allow us to thoroughly evaluate the efficacy of our proposed generative model for the critical task of missing pixel imputation.
This section of the paper presents the results of both imputation and diversity of GSIP-GAN for the (Open Energy Images, NREL Solar Images and NREL Wind Turbine Dataset) datasets. The results also compare between GSIP-GAN and different GANs architectures for imputation and diversity such as Wasserstein GAN (WGAN) [31], Spectral Normalized GAN (SNGAN)[32], Progressive Growing of GANs (PGGAN) [33] , Cycle-Consistent GANs (CycleGAN) [34] , and Spatially Adaptive Normalization (SPADE) [35].
4.1 Results of imputation process
This section of the paper presents the comparison between GSIP-GAN and Wasserstein GAN (WGAN) , Spectral Normalized GAN (SNGAN), Progressive Growing of GANs (PGGAN) , Cycle-Consistent GANs (CycleGAN) , and Spatially Adaptive Normalization (SPADE) using three different metrices for the imputation process. Table 2 showcases the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) comparison, which is a metric used to evaluate the accuracy of image reconstruction. The results indicate that the proposed "Our" model outperforms the other GAN models, consistently achieving the lowest RMSE values across all three datasets. This suggests that the "Our" model is highly effective in accurately reconstructing the missing or corrupted pixels in the energy-related images.
Table 3 presents the Residual Signal-to-Noise Ratio (RSNR) comparison, which measures the quality of the reconstructed image in terms of signal-to-noise ratio. A higher RSNR value indicates a better reconstruction with less noise and artifacts. The "Our" model exhibits the highest RSNR values across the three datasets, outperforming the other GAN models. This demonstrates the proposed model's superior ability to preserve the signal-to-noise characteristics of the original images during the imputation process.
Table 4 compares the Structural Similarity Index (SSIM) of the models. SSIM evaluates the structural and perceptual similarity between the reconstructed and original images, with a higher value indicating better preservation of the image's structural properties. The results show that the "Our" model consistently achieves the highest SSIM values, suggesting its effectiveness in maintaining the structural integrity and visual similarity of the imputed energy-related images. Figure 1,2 and 3 also shows the comparison between our model and other models for the different three datasets.
Table 2 RMSE Comparison of five Models and GSIP-GAN Across three Datasets
Table 3 RSNR Comparison of five Models and GSIP-GAN Across three Datasets
Table 4 SSIM Comparison of five Models and GSIP-GAN Across three Datasets
4.2 The diversity results
This part of the results shows the comparison between GSIP-GAN and Wasserstein GAN (WGAN) , Spectral Normalized GAN (SNGAN), Progressive Growing of GANs (PGGAN) , Cycle-Consistent GANs (CycleGAN) , and Spatially Adaptive Normalization (SPADE) based on FID and IS to meaure the diversity of generation of the missing pixel.
ables 5 and 6 showcase the performance of five models, including a proposed model referred to as "Our," across three datasets: Open Energy Images, NREL Solar Images, and Wind Turbine. Table 5 focuses on the Fréchet Inception Distance (FID), where lower values indicate better performance. The proposed model consistently outperforms the others, achieving the lowest FID scores across all datasets, particularly with 178.23 on Open Energy Images, 178.32 on NREL Solar Images, and 145.45 on Wind Turbine, indicating superior image quality and realism. Conversely, other models like CycleGAN and SNGAN exhibit higher FID scores, particularly in the Wind Turbine dataset, highlighting their comparatively lower performance.
Table 6 assesses the Inception Score (IS), where higher values indicate better performance. Again, the proposed model outshines the others, achieving the highest IS across all datasets, with notable scores of 69.32, 89.43, and 86.34 for Open Energy Images, NREL Solar Images, and Wind Turbine, respectively. This demonstrates that the proposed model not only produces high-quality images but also generates diverse and meaningful outputs. The other models, such as SNGAN and SPADE, generally exhibit lower IS scores, reflecting their relatively weaker performance. Figure 4 and 5 also shows the comparison between the our approaches and other GANs architectures in the term of the diversity.
Table 5: FID Comparison of Five Models and GSIP-GAN Across three Datasets
Table 6: IS Comparison of Five Models and GSIP-GAN Across three Datasets
This paper introduced a novel GAN-based approach for missing pixel imputation that addresses key challenges in GAN training and pixel selection. The proposed method integrates three key innovations: an identity module to mitigate the vanishing gradient problem, a sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic algorithm to optimize pixel selection, and an adaptive interval mechanism to enhance the generator's efficiency and coherence of the imputed pixels. Extensive experiments on diverse datasets demonstrated the superior performance of the proposed method in maintaining pixel integrity and addressing common GAN issues like mode collapse. The integration of biological inspiration through the sperm motility heuristic, combined with the architectural enhancements, enabled the system to generate high-quality, contextually accurate pixel imputations even in the presence of high percentages of missing data. The contributions of this work extend beyond just pixel imputation, as the proposed techniques have the potential to benefit a wide range of image processing tasks where robust reconstruction of missing or corrupted data is crucial, such as image enhancement, segmentation, and object detection. The proposed GAN-based approach for missing pixel imputation has demonstrated promising results, but there are several avenues for future research and improvement. Exploring adaptive architectures, extending the framework to video data, incorporating multi-modal data, accelerating inference, and investigating alternative biological inspirations could further enhance the method's adaptability, generalization, and practical applicability. Adapting the framework to handle missing pixel imputation in video sequences could enable its application to a broader range of multimedia processing tasks, such as video restoration and anomaly detection. Integrating additional data modalities, like depth information or semantic context, could potentially improve the accuracy and robustness of the pixel imputation process. Investigating optimization techniques or hardware-specific implementations to improve the computational efficiency of the inference process could make the proposed method more suitable for real-time or resource-constrained applications. Exploring other biologically inspired mechanisms, beyond sperm motility, and their integration into the GAN framework could lead to new insights and advancements in image processing.
Author contributions
The authors contributed collaboratively to the paper by developing a novel GAN architecture for missing pixel imputation. Gamal M. Mahmoud spearheaded the design of the identity module to mitigate the vanishing gradient problem, while Wael Said focused on the sperm motility-inspired metaheuristic for pixel selection and conducted experimental evaluations. Magdy M. Fadel assisted in formulating the methodology and assessing performance metrics, and Mostafa Elbaz coordinated the research efforts and enhanced the manuscript's clarity. Their combined efforts led to a robust approach for addressing missing pixel imputation challenges.
Funding
The authors received no specific funding for this work
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests
Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to M. Elbaz
Data availability
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
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No competing interests reported.