A mechanical strategy of surface anchoring to enhance the electrochemical performance of ZnO/NiCo2O4@NF self-supporting anode for lithium-ion batteries

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4970654/v1

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A mechanical strategy of surface anchoring to enhance the electrochemical performance of ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF self-supporting anode for lithium-ion batteries

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4970654/v1

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NiCo₂O₄ has the advantages of high energy density, low cost, and environment-friendly as the anode materials of lithium-ion batteries. However, NiCo₂O₄ is adversely affected by the slow transmission rate of lithium-ion and the collapse of its three-dimensional loose and porous nano-flake structure causes its poor cycling performance. In this study, to address this issue, the NiCo₂O₄ @ nickel foam(NF) composite was formed by depositing ZIF-67 on nickel foam through room temperature standing and 350 ℃ treatment, and then short ZnO nanorods with an anchoring structure were grown on its surface through heat treatment and hydrothermal treatment to obtain ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF compound materials. The nano-rod structure of ZnO material increases the contact between the electrode material and electrolyte, reduces the charge transfer resistance, and its anchoring structure stabilizes the porous sheet architecture of NiCo₂O₄@NF. After 100 cycles (100 mA∙g^− 1), the discharge capacity of the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrode remained at 475.2 mAh∙g^− 1, which is significantly higher than 313.8 mAh∙g^− 1 of NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode and 245.4 mAh∙g^− 1 of ZnO@NF electrode.

mechanical strategy

ZnO/NiCo2O4@NF composite

electrode materials

surface anchoring

Lithium-ion batteries (LIB) are now widely used in a range of applications, from portable electronic devices such as smartphones and laptops to electric vehicles and energy storage systems for the grid[1, 2, 3, 4]. The demand for high-energy-density batteries has stimulated the pursuit of advanced anode materials that can replace graphite anodes currently widely used commercially. To achieve this goal, many researchers have explored alternative materials, including silicon, titanium, and transition metal oxides, as high-capacity anode materials[5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10].

NiCo₂O₄ has attracted much attention due to its high energy density, low cost, environment-friendly, and other advantages[11]. Moreover, it has a theoretical capacity of 890 mAh∙g^− 1. However, it suffers from poor cyclability due to the collapse of the three-dimensional loose and porous nano-flake structure during cycling[12]. To overcome this issue, research by Yuan et al.[13] utilized the electrostatic spray deposition (ESD) technique to deposit 3D porous NiO-NiCo₂O₄ films directly onto the surface of 3D porous NF. The results showed that this porous NiO-NiCo₂O₄ structure significantly improved the material's electrochemical performance. This structure exhibited high specific capacity and stable cycling behavior. Another research by Wang et al[14] synthesized carbonaceous microspheres (CMSs) using cobalt acetate tetrahydrate as a catalyst, resulting in the formation of six-shelled NiCo₂O₄ hollow multi-shelled structures (6S-NiCo₂O₄-HoMSs). These low-dimensional nanostructures have a high specific surface area and excellent mass transport properties. Its multi-shelled structure effectively manages volume expansion, reduces stress and strain, promotes uniform lithium deposition, and improves battery cycle stability.

Another way to mitigate the capacity decay phenomenon due to the volume effect is surface coating[15]. Surface coatings for lithium-ion battery anodes come in various structures, including monolayer, bilayer, core-shell, and hierarchical structures. And achieved by some techniques such as chemical vapor deposition (CVD)[16], atomic layer deposition (ALD)[17], and electrochemical deposition (ECD)[18]. Although these coatings offer simple and effective protection for the anode material, they may also have drawbacks such as decreased flexibility and increased cracking susceptibility[19]. Among many potential coating materials, ZnO nanorods have attracted much attention due to their high mechanical strength, more resistance to mechanical damage, and can be engineered to allow volume change[20].

In Fig. 1, a mechanical strategy was assumed, the nanorod structure of ZnO was grown on the surface of NiCo₂O₄@NF composites by hydrothermal through an anchoring structure. The size of the nanorod-like ZnO is tailored to match the loose and porous nano-flake structure of NiCo₂O₄, enabling the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite to remain stable during cycling without collapsing. The final experimental results of the anode material showed better electrical conductivity, kinetics, and cyclability.

2.1 Experimental Preparation Procedure

Firstly, 0.1455 g of Co(NO₃)₂·6H₂O was added to 10 mL of deionized water with constant stirring to obtain solution A. Add 0.328 g of dimethylimidazole to 10 mL of deionized water and stir magnetically for 5 min to prepare Solution B. Then add Solution B quickly into Solution A and continue to stir magnetically for 5 min to obtain Solution C. Add the cleaned and pre-treated NF to Solution C, sonicate for 3 min to remove air bubbles, and let stand at room temperature for 6 h. After that, rinse the NF with anhydrous ethanol, and dry it in a vacuum oven overnight to obtain ZIF-67@ NF samples.

ZIF-67@NF was then placed in a tube furnace. And the tube furnace was increased temperature to 350 ℃ with a heating rate of 2 ℃/min, then held at 350 ℃ for 2 h under an air atmosphere, and finally cooled to room temperature naturally to obtain the NiCo₂O₄@NF composites.

A 0.05 M ethanolic solution of Zinc acetate was prepared, and the NiCo₂O₄@NF material was immersed in the above solution for 5 min, then dried at 80 ℃ and the above steps were repeated three times. Then, the NiCo₂O₄@NF material was held at 350 ℃ for 30 min under an air atmosphere with an increase rate of 2 ℃/min and then lowered to room temperature. Dissolve 0.015 M Zn(NO₃)₂∙6H₂O, 0.015 M urotropine, and 0.6 mL ammonia in 20 mL of deionized water and keep stirring for 30 min, then pour the well-mixed solution into a 25 mL hydrothermal reactor, add annealed NF, react at 90 ℃ for 24 h. After it is lowered to room temperature, remove and wash with deionized water and anhydrous ethanol 3 times, and finally dried in an oven at 60 ℃ for 8 h. ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF target composites were obtained. In addition, the above steps were repeated directly on the pretreated clean NF. The ZnO@NF composite grown in situ on blank NF was generated and used as a comparison material for analysis together with the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite. The compositions and properties were analyzed together with NiCo₂O₄@NF composites as comparison materials.

2.2 Characterization

The surface morphology was observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM, JEOL, JSM-7900F). The phase composition was determined by X-ray diffraction (XRD, Smart Lab III, Rigaku, Cu K radiation, λ = 0.1542 nm). The XRD data were collected from 2θ = 10°-80° at a scanning rate of 5°∙min^− 1.

2.3 Electrochemical performance measurements

The electrode materials synthesized in the experiment were pressed together with a blank NF tablet press of the same size (pressure of 10 MPa). Then dry at 80°C for 6 hours. Put in an argon glove box and assemble it into a button battery for CR2025. The separator material was Celgard 2400 polypropylene. The electrolyte was a solution of LiPF₆(1M) in ethylene carbonate (EC), ethyl methyl carbonate (EMC), and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) (1:1:1 in volume). Then the assembled button battery was placed in the groove of the sealing machine and applied 8 MPa pressure. After the battery is built, aging for one night, conducting a series of electrochemical performance tests. In this paper, the cycle performance and rate performance of the battery were tested by the LAND battery-testing system (CT2001A, China). Cyclic voltammetry (CV) was performed at the electrochemical workstation (CHI660E, Shanghai Chenhua, China). Tested at 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0 mV s^− 1 scan rate in the voltage range of 0.01-3 V. Electrochemical impedance spectrum (EIS) was carried out by electrochemical workstation (CHI660E, Shanghai Chenhua, China) in the frequency range of 100000-0.01 Hz.

To analyze the phase composition of the synthesized materials, XRD characterization was performed on the target and comparison materials. Figure 2(a) shows the XRD spectra of the comparison material ZnO@NF, the diffraction peaks at 2θ = 32.1°, 34.5°, 36.5°, and 57.2° correspond to the (100), (002), (101), and (110) crystal planes of ZnO (JDPDS NO. 75-1526), respectively, demonstrating that ZnO on the surface of NF was successfully synthesized. The XRD spectra of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composites are shown in Fig. 2(b). The diffraction peaks at 2θ = 44.7°, 52.0°, and 76.5° of the composites correspond to the (111), (200), and (220) crystal planes of Ni (JDPDS NO.87–0712), respectively. The diffraction peaks at diffraction angles 2θ = 18.9°, 31.2°, 38.4°, 59.1°, and 65.0° are attributed to the (111), (220), (222), (511), and (440) crystal planes of NiCo₂O₄ (JDPDS NO. 73-1702). Figure 2(c) shows the XRD spectral characterization of the target material ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF, which was successfully synthesized as a ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite grown in situ on NF by comparing with the PDF card. The intensity of the diffraction peaks of the synthesized material is relatively low due to the three strong diffraction peaks of the monolithic nickel, but still, obvious diffraction peaks can be seen in this figure, and the presence of the elements Ni, Co, and O can also be proved by the Mapping characterization of NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material shown in Fig. 2(d), and the distribution of the three elements is very homogeneous on the NF, which once again confirms the synthesis of NiCo₂O₄@NF composites and shows that the NiCo₂O₄@NF material grows uniformly on the NF.

To observe the morphological characteristics of the composites, the target materials and two comparison materials were subjected to scanning electron microscopy (SEM) characterization of the target material and the two comparison materials. Figure 3 (a, b) show the morphological features of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material at different magnifications. A unique loose and porous nano-flake structure is formed in situ on the foam nickel substrate, its pores diameter is 40–70 µm. The nano-flakes exhibit a thickness of only a few tens of nanometers and are irregularly distributed on the surface of the NF. Figure 3 (c, d) present the morphological features of the reference material ZnO at different magnifications. ZnO exhibits a disordered distribution of short rod structures on the microscale, randomly dispersed on the NF substrate. The appearance of a few conical clusters in the image may be attributed to the corrosion of the foam nickel substrate by the ZnO solution during the preparation process, resulting in the formation of a small amount of NiO morphology.

Figure 3 (e, f) display the surface morphology of the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material. It is evident from the images that a layer of short rod-like ZnO structures has grown on the surface of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material. The diameter of these rods ranges from 40 to 60 nanometers, with lengths varying between 100 and 400 nanometers. Notably, a comparison between Fig. 3 (b) and Fig. 3 (e) reveals a significant increase in the synthesized ZnO when ZnO grows on the surface of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material. This increase can be attributed to the fact that the sheet-like porous structure of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material, with its diameter-matched pores of 400–700 nanometers, provides a favorable surface for the attachment and anchoring of ZnO nanorods. Consequently, the quantity of hydrothermally synthesized nano-rods is enhanced. The uniform coating of ZnO on the surface of the NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material is beneficial for improving the fragility associated with its loose and porous structure, thereby enhancing structural stability.

The target material was utilized as a lithium-ion negative electrode material and assembled into a button cell to evaluate its electrochemical performance. Figure 4(a) illustrates the cyclic voltammetry (CV) curves of the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode, ZnO, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode within the voltage range of 0.01-3.00 V at a scan rate of 0.1 mV s^− 1. The reduction peak of NiCo₂O₄@NF appears at 1.06 V during the negative scan, corresponding to the reduction process of Ni²⁺ and Co²⁺ to metallic Ni and Co, as indicated by the discharge plateau at 1.3 V in Fig. 4(b) of the NiCo₂O₄@NF discharge curve. In Fig. 4(a), the oxidation peaks observed at 0.3, 0.4, 0.55, 0.7, and 1.4 V during the positive scan for ZnO and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF are associated with the oxidation of metallic Zn to Zn²[21]. The oxidation peak observed at 2.25 V for ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF corresponds to the oxidation of metallic Ni and Co to Ni²⁺ and Co²⁺. The reduction peak at 1.1 V during the negative scan for ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF corresponds to the discharge plateau at 1.35 V in the galvanostatic charge-discharge curve. As shown in Fig. 4(a), The peak potential gaps for NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF, and ZnO are 1.217 V, 1.15 V, and 1.143 V, respectively. It is evident that after the anchoring of ZnO, NiCo₂O₄@NF composite material has a stronger anodic/cathodic peak intensity and a smaller potential gap between the reduction and oxidation peaks which indicates faster Li⁺ diffusion kinetics and lower polarization[22].

Cycling and rate capability tests were conducted to investigate the electrochemical performance of the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes in button battery. Figure 5(a) presents the capacity and stability tests of the electrodes after 100 cycles at a current density of 100 mA∙g^− 1. The NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode, ZnO electrode, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode exhibited initial discharge specific capacities of 1516.6/1116.9 mAh∙g^− 1, 1133.1/722.6 mAh∙g^− 1, and 1460.1/944.6 mAh∙g^− 1, respectively. The corresponding first-cycle coulombic efficiencies were 73.6%, 63.8%, and 64.7%. After 100 charge-discharge cycles, the discharge-specific capacities of the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes reached 313.8, 245.4, and 475.2 mAh∙g^− 1, respectively. The capacity retention rates after 100 cycles, relative to the second cycle, were 28.2%, 34.6%, and 51.5% for the three electrodes, respectively. The ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode exhibited the highest capacity and capacity retention rate after 100 cycles. The addition of ZnO enhanced the stability of the material, resulting in slower capacity decay during cycling.

Figure 5(b) shows the rate capability test results of the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes. At current densities of 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 mA∙g^− 1, the discharge capacities of the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode were 1409.8, 1261.8, 1021.1, 836.9, and 658.4 mAh∙g^− 1, respectively. The corresponding specific capacities of the ZnO@NF electrode were 541.2, 377.5, 296.8, 244.6, and 204.5 mAh∙g^− 1, while the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrode exhibited specific capacities of 828.6, 657.2, 499.8, 432.4, and 357.3 mAh∙g^− 1. When the current density was restored from 1600 mA∙g^− 1 to 100 mA∙g^− 1, the capacities of the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes were 917.0, 342.5, and 540.1 mAh∙g^− 1, respectively. The capacity loss rates, relative to the initial cycle at 100 mA g^− 1, were 35.0%, 36.7%, and 33.9% for the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrodes, indicating relatively good reversibility for the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrode. The improved reversibility is likely attributed to the anchoring of the ZnO nanorod with high mechanical strength on the surface of the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrode, which enhances its structural stability under high current conditions.

To further analyze the factors influencing the electrochemical kinetics of the materials, cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests were conducted on the three electrodes at different scan rates. Figure 6 (a, c, e) displays the CV curves of the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes at scan rates of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0 mV∙s^− 1. With different scan rates, the CV curves of the three electrodes exhibit similar shapes, with an increase in the magnitude of oxidation/reduction peaks and slight shifting, indicating minor polarization of the electrode materials. Figure 6 (b, d, f) presents the plots of logv versus logi for the cathodic and anodic scans. The relationship between the current density i and the scan rate ν follows the equation logi = b*logν + loga, where the value of adjustable parameter b reflects the controlling process during electrode charge and discharge. The b values for the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode are 0.44 and 0.6, while for the ZnO@NF electrode, the b values are 0.68 and 0.7. As for the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode, the b values are 0.5 and 0.64. Overall, the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode is primarily controlled by the diffusion process, while the ZnO@NF electrode is controlled by a combination of capacitance and diffusion processes. The ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode exhibits b values between those of the other two electrodes, indicating that the diffusion process remains the primary control mechanism.

Finally, the electrochemical impedance spectroscopy of the three electrodes was further discussed and analyzed. Figure 7(a) shows the Nyquist plots of the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes before the charge-discharge cycling test. The plots for all three electrodes exhibit similar shapes, consisting of a semicircle and a sloping line. The semicircle in the high-frequency region represents the charge transfer impedance, while the sloping line in the low-frequency region indicates the Warburg diffusion impedance. From the graph, it can be observed that the charge transfer impedances of those electrodes are 908.5, 1162.9, and 245.8 Ω, respectively. The ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode exhibits the smallest charge transfer impedance, which may be attributed to the formation of a dense layer of ZnO nanorods, increasing the contact area with the electrolyte.

Figure 7(b) shows the diffusion impedances of Li⁺ within the materials for the three electrodes. It can be seen that the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode has the lowest diffusion impedance, indicating a relatively lower impedance within the material. Figure 7(c) presents the impedance test curves of the NiCo₂O₄@NF, ZnO@NF, and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes after 30 charge-discharge cycles. It is worth noting that the NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode exhibits a semicircle and a sloping line, while the ZnO@NF and ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrodes consist of two semicircles and a sloping line. The presence of two semicircles in the latter two electrodes indicates the existence of two interface electron transfer processes. The appearance of two semicircles in the ZnO@NF electrode is attributed to the interface between the rod-like ZnO and the accompanying clustered NiO with the electrolyte, while the two semicircles in the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode arise from the interfaces formed between the rod-like ZnO and the porous sheet-like NiCo₂O₄@NF material with the electrolyte. The smallest semicircle in the Nyquist plot of the ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode indicates the lowest charge transfer impedance, while Fig. 7(d) also shows the smallest diffusion impedance after 30 cycles among the three electrode materials, reflecting optimal interface charge transfer rate and bulk lithium-ion transport rate.

In this work, NiCo₂O₄@NF composites were generated by calcination of the synthesized ZIF-67 with NF, followed by the growth of ZnO material on the surface to obtain ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composites with optimized electrochemical properties compared to the comparison materials NiCo₂O₄@NF and ZnO@NF.

The ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF morphology presents a short rod-like structure grown on the porous lamellar NiCo₂O₄@NF composite, which has a unique structure with significant stability in charge/discharge cycles and high specific capacity compared to the NiCo₂O₄@NF material with loose porous lamellar shape. The ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF composite electrode can reach a specific capacity of 475.2 mAh∙g^− 1 after 100 cycles (100 mA∙g^− 1), which is significantly higher than the 313.8 mAh∙g^− 1 of NiCo₂O₄@NF electrode and 245.4 mAh∙g^− 1 of ZnO@NF electrode under the same test conditions. The anchoring of ZnO nanorods on the surface of the composites effectively addressed the issue of the collapse of the NiCo₂O₄ during cycling and resulted in improved electrical conductivity, kinetics, and cyclability. The results of this work suggest that the mechanical structure could be a promising strategy for improving the performance of high-capacity anode materials.

Author contribution: Lixiang Sun, Zhenglong Yang and Zhe Wang designed this project and contributed to the main manuscript text. Yanbin Xu and Xingang Liu conducted experiments and contributed equally to this work. Shuai Wang, Zhenyu Fu, Wenfan Feng, Zhiqiang Lv, Yuming Cui, Xiao Li, Ping Yin, Ashely DeMerleand Ethan Burcar have contributed to conducting the experiments, preparing figures, and writing. All authors reviewed the manuscript.

Funding: This work was supported by Yantai Science and Technology Innovation Development Planning(2022XDRH007, Campus Local Integration Project), and was partially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 52173075). ZW would like to acknowledge the support from Oakland University.

Data availability: The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper. Should any raw data files be needed in another format, they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

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A mechanical strategy of surface anchoring to enhance the electrochemical performance of ZnO/NiCo₂O₄@NF self-supporting anode for lithium-ion batteries

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

2. Experimental methods

2.1 Experimental Preparation Procedure

2.2 Characterization

2.3 Electrochemical performance measurements

3. Results and discussion

4. Conclusions

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References

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