Tackling Food Waste in Urban Landscapes: A Systematic Review of Household Food Waste in Asian Countries

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4977088/v1

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Systematic Review

Tackling Food Waste in Urban Landscapes: A Systematic Review of Household Food Waste in Asian Countries

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4977088/v1

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The concern surrounding food waste is influenced by, among others, societal factors. Previous research suggests that urbanization has a significant impact on the food system, leading to increased food waste. Moreover, reducing food waste leads to sustainable production and consumption. Thus the aims of this research are to analyse the factors that influence food waste behavior in urban landscapes and to develop a solution to tackle food waste behavior among households in Asian countries. According to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, 41 articles were selected out of 7.058 papers retrieved from the Scopus database and Web of Sciences database and reviewed.. The results indicated that there were five domains essential in reducing household food waste, namely household attributes, psychological factors, behavioural factors, situational factors, and food attributes. The systematic review suggests that understanding the consumer needs, family needs, consumption pattern and increase the awareness of negative impact on food waste enables mitigating household food waste production in urban landscape.

JEL Codes : D12, D13, N35, Q01

Asian Countries

Food Waste

Household

Sustainable Consumption

Urban Area

The issue of food waste is a huge global concern that has wide-ranging ramifications in terms of economics, the environment, and the society. In recent years, the issue of food waste has attracted growing attention due to the rapid urbanization observed in several Asian regions (Wang et. al., 2017; Shafy & Mansour, 2018; Wang YS, 2019). The rise of household food waste in urban settings throughout Asian countries can be explained by rapid urban expansion, changes in diets, and shifting lifestyles (Seto & Ramankutty, 2016; Hatab et.al., 2019; Casari et.al., 2022). Different consumer lifestyles affect the amount of food waste (Witzel et al., 2021). The changing consumption patterns lead to an increasing various food preference. There are lots of individuals with diverse food tastes in urban areas. The various kinds of food offered in urban areas tend to stimulate consumers generate more food waste. The challenge of addressing this dilemma has emerged as a matter of critical importance, not only to mitigate the strain on existing limited resources, but also to reduce the consequential environmental impacts and ensure food for the expanding global population. Food waste in urban areas presents a significant challenge to sustainable production and consumption, necessitating integrated approaches to manage resources efficiently. Urban food systems are complicated and frequently ineffective, resulting in significant food waste that worsens resource scarcity and environmental effects (Camilleri, M.A., 2021). It is alongside with the Sustainable Development Goals 12 (SDGs 12) responsible consumption and production. There is a limited number of previous studies that examine broader antecedents of urbanization related to food waste, such as food access, religion and culture, and innovation. This research will cover the knowledge gap regarding the effects of urbanization on food waste.

In the Asian context, characterized by the merge of numerous cultures and diverse economic circumstances, a comprehensive understanding of household food waste requires the adoption of a nuanced approach. The effective management of food waste is a complex matter that is influenced by various factors, including consumer behavior, food supply chains, economic inequality, motivation, socio demographics and infrastructure development (Govindam K, 2018; Bhaattacharya et. al., 202; Messner et. al., 2020; Messner et al., 2021; T.T.T. Nguyen et al., 2023; Vittuari M. et al., 2023). Currently, there exists a fragmented set of research on the issue of household food waste in Asian countries, which prevents the development of a comprehensive understanding of the distinct challenges and opportunities that this region offers. Therefore, there is a critical need for a systematic review that synthesizes existing knowledge, identifies significant trends, and provides a comprehensive overview of the state of household food waste in Asian urban landscapes. This systematic review attempts to bridge the current knowledge gap by conducting a comprehensive analysis of household food waste in urban areas across various Asian countries studied to date. Its objective is to offer a thorough examination of the antecedent factors associated with food waste in urban households, drawing upon a synthesis of numerous studies and investigations. Furthermore, through this systematic review, the study seeks to identify successful strategies, interventions, and policies implemented in Asian urban areas to tackle the issue of food waste effectively.

2.1 Data Sources and Search Strategy

This study is based on the data retrieved from Scopus and Web of Science. in which the majority of papers were peer-reviewed (Sahu et al., 2020). A manual search was conducted to examine the journal article's reference list throughout the selection process. To search the Scopus databased, we applied the following terms and keywords: “household” OR “family” OR “home” OR “consumer” OR “consumers” AND “food” AND “waste” AND “urban” OR “urbanization” OR “metropolitan” with the range publication from 2018 until June 2023. To search the Web of Sciences databased, we applied the following terms and keywords : “household” OR “family” OR “home” OR “consumer” OR “consumers” AND “food” AND “waste” AND “urban” OR “urbanization” OR “metropolitan” with the range publication between 1st January 2018 until 30th June 2023. Selecting 2018 to 2023 as the time frame for gathering papers provides the most recent update on the state of food waste issues. Furthermore, the articles were checked according to the eligible criteria of inclusion and exclusion.

2.2 Eligible Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria were used to select relevant articles discussing food waste in urban landscapes at household level. The inclusion criteria were: (1) the scope of the scientific journal and article (2) the article is written in English (3) the research area of the article is social sciences, business, management, economics, multidiscipline, and decision making (4) the articles relate with the food waste at household level and urbanization or urban areas in Asian countries. The exclusion criteria cover: (1) irrelevant titles and abstracts (2) the articles were not peer reviewed (3) the search location was not in Asian countries (4) the article did not investigate household food waste and urbanization. The flow of diagram (Fig. 1) presents the process of selecting articles step by step. The flow diagram refers to The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement, explained below.

2.3 Data Extraction and Synthesis based on PRISMA

This study followed The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) 2020 statement (Page, MJ et al., 2020). PRISMA analysis includes the checklist of 27 items referring to section and topic: (1) the tittle (2) abstract (3) introduction (4) methods (5) results (6) discussion, and (7) other information. Other information include author’s name, country of conducted study, year of journal, journal’s name, volume and issues of journal, and sample size. Data were synthesised using descriptive analysis and thematic analysis. This study was analysed to better understand how to tackle food waste in urban landscape, focusing household level in Asian countries.

3.1 Study Selection

According to the SCOPUS and Web of Science databases, there are 7.058 scientific articles that relate with the keywords. Additionally, there were 26 articles from the citation search. The authors screened the articles using inclusion and exclusion criteria. Then, the number of articles removed was 648 according to duplicate articles, 378 due to non-English text, and 4,081 due to irrelevant titles and abstracts. Furthermore, 421 non-reviewed articles (SCOPUS and Web of Science Database) and 11 articles from manual hand searching were removed; 754 articles were removed due to the location of the research area not being in Asian countries (SCOPUS and Web of Science Database); 7 articles were removed due to the location not being in Asian countries (manual hand searching); 339 articles (SCOPUS and Web of Science Database) were removed due to the articles not investigating household food waste and urbanization; and 5 articles were removed from manual hand searching. The final article generated 41 articles in review and 31 reports of included studies.

3.2 Study Characteristics

Descriptive analysis provides the basic characteristics of the selected articles. Figure 2 depicts the research conducted in various Asian countries elaborated by the authors.

Sources: elaborated by authors

Figure 2 Frequency of Research Conducted between 2018–2023 in Asian Countries

The detailed location information for every Asian region is explained in Table 1. Table 1 provides country information, the number of research conducted based on country, and the location of urban areas in each country. All data retrieved from the 31 reviewed articles

Table 1

Information of Location Research Conducted
Countries	Number of Research Conducted (Based on Country)	Urban Areas
China	10	Beijing, Hefei, Guiyang, Guangzhou, Xiamen, Zhengzhou, Shanghai, Wuhan, Tibet, Xinjiang, Mongolia, Hainan, Ningxia, Fujian, Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan
Malaysia	4	Klang valley, kuala lumpur
Vietnam	4	Hanoi, Da nang
Iran	3	Tehran
Thailand	3	Bangkok
Indonesia	3	Bogor, Jakarta
Philippines	3	Manila
Japan	2	Tokyo
India	2	Delhi
Bangladesh	2	Narayanganj
Singapore	2	Singapore
Israel	1	Jerusalem
Saudi Arabia	1	Riyadh
Myanmar	1	Burma
Total	41

Based on Table 1, the majority of studies about household food waste were conducted in China, followed by Malaysia and Vietnam. Following Iran, Thailand, Indonesia, Philippines. During the years 2018–2023, some countries in Asia did not appear in this study. It indicates that only a limited number of urban household food waste studies were conducted based on Scopus and Web of Sciences database. The majority of them discuss food waste issues outside of the household and do not focus on urban areas. China, as the country that has conducted most research on household food waste in recent years, continues to place a high priority on food waste issues due to its dense population, which increases food waste production. As the findings of this study show, urban areas correspond to major cities in each nation as well as cities with a diverse population.

3.2.1 Research Design

This study identifies and presents in Table 2 the research design of each selected paper. The research design, which defines the approach for each study in the articles, encompasses three distinct methodologies: quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods (combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches).

Table 2

Research Design Approach used in the Reviewed Articles
Research Design	Number of Article	Percentage
Quantitative	20	65
Qualitative	8	26
Mix Methods	3	9

According to Table 2, more than half of food waste studies conducted by quantitative approach (65%). Generally, most of the tools used in quantitative studies are questionnaires and surveys. A quarter of studies used the qualitative approach (26%). A few studies also used the mix method to obtain the results of the food waste study (9%).

3.2.2 Methodology of Studies

A systematic review of food waste provides the process of study methodology that covers information about all authors, countries, measurements of the study, sample size, and time of data collection. Table 3 describes the information methodology of food waste studies

Table 3

Methodology of Studies
Authors	Countries	Measurement of Study	Sample Size	Time of Data Collection
Kang, Y; Baidya, A; Aaron, A; Wang, J; Chan, C; Wetzler, E	Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Philippines, Vietnam	Quantitative	13.522 households	May-June 2020
Karim, KMR; Tasnim, T	Bangladesh	Quantitative	220 households	May-June 2020
Li, Y.; Wang, L.-E.; Liu, G.; Cheng, S.	China	Quantitative	207 households	2017
Min, S.; Wang, X.; Yu, X.	China	Quantitative	12.386 households	2004,2006,2009 (CHNS survey)
Zhang, P.; Zhang, D.; Cheng, S.	China	Quantitative	273 households	April - May 2018
Li, Y.; Filimonau, V.; Wang, L.-E.; Cheng, S.	China	Mix Method	2. 399 households	29 October − 19 November 2020. 29 September − 28 December 2021
Zhang, K.; Li, F.; Li, H.; Yin, C.	China	Quantitative	511households	Jul-22
Chen, J.; Liu, C.	China	Qualitative	35 young people	April and July 2018
Zhao, L.; Chen, H.	China	Quantitative	12.126 households	2016
Xing, L.; Lin, T.; Xue, X.; Lin, M.; Zhao, Y.	China	Quantitative	500 households	2011
Liu, C.; Chen, J.	China	Qualitative	35 young consumers	N/A
Liu, C.; Chen, J.	China	Qualitative	35 young people	2019
Li, J; Zhang, D; Su, B	China	Quantitative	800 households	2011
Yingle, W dkk	China, Japan, Thailand	Quantitative	3000 urban consumers	September - November 2020
Bhatia S; Sharma S	India	Quantitative	372 households	April - August 2022
Soma	Indonesia	Mix Method	323 households	July - October 2015
Fami, H.S.; Aramyan, L.H.; Sijtsema, S.J.; Alambaigi, A.	Iran	Quantitative	1197 urban women	2019
Allahyari, MS; Marzban, S; Bilali, HE; Hassen, TB	Iran	Quantitative	774 households	April - May 2020
Iranmesh, M; Ghobakhloo, M; Nilashi, M; Tseng, ML; Senali, MG; Abbasi, GA	Iran	Qualitative	N/A	N/A
Elimelecxh,E; Mintz, KK; Katz-Gerro T;Segal-Klein, H; Hussein, L; ayalon, O	Israel	Qualitative	27 consumers	2021–2022
Nakamura, K.; Kojima, D.; Ando, M.	Japan	Quantitative	3470 consumers	2018
Wong, K.K.S.; Sharifuddin, J.B.; Teng, P.K.; Li, W.W.; Song, L.K.	Malaysia	Quantitative	400 urban consumers	2019
Nik Masdek, N.R.; Wong, K.K.S.; Mohd Nawi, N.; Sharifuddin, J.; Wong, W.L.	Malaysia	Quantitative	521 households	September 2021 -January 2022
Seng,K.W.K.; Masdek, N.R.N.; Sharifuddin, J., Li, W.W.; Song, L.K.	Malaysia	Quantitative	200 households	October -December 2019
Diana R; Martianto, D dkk	Malaysia, Thailand, Singapore, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam	Qualitative	N/A	January 2011- December 2021
Agdeppa IA; Toledo, MB; Zamora, JAT	Philippines	Quantitative	20.151 households	2018
Aleshaiwi, A; Harries, T	Saudi Arabia	Qualitative	28 women	2018 and 2019
Kua, H.W.; He, X.; Tian, H.; Peng, Y.; Wang, C.-H.	Singapore	Qualitative	N/A	N/A
Bunditsakulchai, P.; Liu, C.	Thailand	Quantitative	222 consumers	Dec-17
Liu, C.; Nguyen, T.T.	Vietnam	Mix Method	118 households	January-February 2019
ham N-B, Do T-N, Tran V-Q, Trinh A-D, Liu C, Mao C	Vietnam	Quantitative	360 households	December 2018- January 2019

Table 3 provides an overview of the primary study methodology adopted to examine urban food waste in Asian countries. Findings show that quantitative approaches represent around 75% of all the analysed studies. The quantitative approach requires a substantial sample size, typically ranging from 200 to 20.151 households, depending on the population size in each country and several considerations regarding the research purposes. An alternative methodology involves using different types of qualitative approaches, as well as a combination of quantitative and qualitative methods. The data collection conducted from 2018 to 2022 involves the phenomenon of the COVID-19 pandemic, which has generated a substantial impact on the production of food waste at the household level (Iranmesh et al., 2022; Allahyari et al., 2022). The limited number of countries in Fig. 2 from 2018 to 2022 reflects that there is lack of previous studies on urban household food waste in Asian countries.

3.3 Results of Syntheses

Antecedents of food waste production at the household level among urban dwellers are classified into five domains: household attributes, psychological factors, behavioral factors, situational factors, and food attributes. Table 4 describes the detailed information for five domains of urban food waste.

Table 4

The information of food waste domains
No	Domain	Antecedents	Authors
1	Household Attributes	education, age, household size, gender, presence of children, occupation, income, housing area, family commensality, health status, household dietary diversity, household material (food storage), having pets, space of land to compost, food expenditure	Zhang et. al. (2022), Nakamura et. al. (2022), Xing et. al. (2021), Liu & Chen (2021), Bunditsakulchai & Liu (2021), Seng et. al. (2021), Li et. al. (2021), Abdallah et. al. (2022), Liu & Chen (2020), Wong et. al. (2020), Zhang et. al. (2020), Fami et. al. (2019), Yingle et. al. (2023), Diana et. al. (2023), Soma (2019), Bhatia & Sharma (2023), Kang et. al. (2021), Karim & Tasnim (2022), Allahyari et. al. (2022), Li et. al. (2019), Agdeppa et. al. (2023)
2	Psychological Factors	knowledge, attitude, perceived benefit, environmental awareness, subjective norm, safety awareness, convenience, dietary knowledge, motivation to reduce FW, social norm, sensory experience	Nik Masdek et. al. (2023), Li et. al. (2023), Nakamura et. al. (2022), Chen & Liu (2022), Liu & Chen (2021), Bunditsakulchai & Liu (2021), Seng et. al. (2021), Min et. al. (2021), Wong et. al. (2020), Zhang et. al. (2020), Fami et. al. (2019), Aleshaiwi & Harries (2021), Yingle et. al. (2023), Diana et. al. (2023), Allahyari et. al. (2022)
3	Behavioural Factors	Checking the label of food, food management, food consumption, shopping planning, not impulsive buying, cooking skills, habit, checking the expired date, food shopping planning, purchasing, storing, cooking skill, eating habit, food sharing, use leftover, shopping frequency,	Nakamura et. al. (2022), Xing et. al. (2021), Bunditsakulchai & Liu (2021), Liu & Nguyen (2021), Wong et. al. (2020), Fami et. al. (2019), Elimelech et. al. (2023), Diana et. al. (2023), Soma (2019), Bhatia & Sharma (2023), Allahyari et. al. (2022), Iranmesh et. al. (2022), Ham et. al. (2021)
4	Situational Factors	food availability, food accessibility, COVID-19 pandemic, social network support, time, culture and religion, lifestyle, technology, hospitality	Li et. al. (2023), Zhang et. al. (2022), Nakamura et. al. (2022), Chen & Liu (2022), Zhao & Chen (2021), Xing et. al. (2021), Liu & Chen (2021), Liu & Chen (2020), Elimelech et. al. (2023), Aleshaiwi & Harries (2021), Soma (2019), Kang et. al. (2021), Allahyari et. al. (2022), Iranmesh et. al. (2022), Li et. al. (2019)
5	Food Attributes	food price, sustainable product, quality, food types	Li et. al. (2023), Kua et. al. (2022), Chen & Liu (2022), Wong et. al. (2020), Agdeppa et. al. (2023)

According to the data shown in Table 4, there are five different categories that can be identified as antecedents of food waste. This classification pertains to the systematic review encompassing 41 studies that were included in the analysis. Table 5 provides an overview of the various factors contributing to food waste and its subsequent impacts across urban households in Asian countries.

Table 5

Antecedents of Food Waste and Causes-Effects
Antecedents	Causes and Effects
Household Attributes
Education	- High educated people tend to hoard food less. - Higher education causes more concern about social issues and global warming, expressed eg. by separating food waste before disposal.
Age	- Young people had weaker food hoarding. - Young couple household generates more food waste.
Household size	- A bigger family size had a negative effect on food hoarding preference. - Single person households waste significantly more food per capita rather than households with bigger number of members. - Big families generate relatively more food waste rather than small ones.
Presence of children	- The increasing number of children has a positive relationship with food waste. It means the increasing number of children so it will increase the food waste
Gender	- Women frequently prepare meals, and thus have more opportunities than males to recognize food waste. - Female household head tend to have less plate of food waste rather than male household head
Occupation Income Food expenditure	- Occupation is related to the frequency of throwing uneaten food - Employed people generate more food waste rather than unemployed and retired people - Chefs, Culinarians, farmers tend to reduce the food waste due to their skill - Lower income urban household results higher nitrogen emission rather than higher income group - Saving cost lead to reduce food waste - Increasing economic power lead to increasing knowledge and skill to reduce food waste - Lower income generates less amount of food waste compared to middle- and high-income group - Reducing food expenditure leads to more mindful consumption, thereby decreasing food waste
Housing area Family commensality	- Larger housing areas often correlate with lower population densities, which can result in smaller nitrogen emissions due to reduced human activity. - Households living in condominiums had three to five times more food delivered to their home than a household in single-detached homes, delivered food results in more food waste - Family based commensality reduces the food waste - Families who are emotionally related, tend to reduce food waste
Health status Household dietary diversity Household equipment	- Households with diabetic patients generate significantly more food waste - Households with diverse food preferences generate more food waste - Refrigerators play an important role in reducing food waste - Lack of food storage tend to generate more food waste
Pets and space of land	- The food waste of urban household with pets was significantly lower than those without pets - Food waste is used as animal feed - Having space land lead to composting and reduce the food waste indirectly
Psychological Factors
Knowledge refers to the information and understanding about food waste and Attitude to practice sustainable food waste management.	- Knowledge about negative impact from food waste lead the attitude to reduce the food waste - Dietary knowledge has negative influence on household food waste. It means having a greater understanding of dietary practices or nutrition tends to reduce the amount of food wasted in households. In other words, households with better knowledge about diet-related matters are likely to waste less food compared to those with less knowledge. - A positive attitude fosters the intention to engage in sustainable food waste management practices. It involves being mindful of one's food choices, planning meals efficiently, creatively utilizing leftovers, and advocating for sustainable practices both in personal behavior and within communities
Perceived benefit, Subjective norms, Social norm	- Perceive benefit has positive impact on attitude to reduce food waste (financial benefit from home composting) - Strong perceived behavioural and benefit control to practice sustainable food waste management - Subjective norms are positive and significant in reducing food waste. People are more inclined to prepare meals and make sensible use of leftovers when they feel that others share their commitment to minimizing food waste. - The practices of reusing food surplus are influenced by social norms that dictate what is acceptable to consume and serve
Environmental awareness, Safety awareness, and Convenience	- Environmental awareness encourages positive attitude prevent the food waste production - People who are more aware about food safety procedures, such as correct handling and storage methods, are less likely to waste food. - Convenience of takeaway food consumption generates significant amount of household waste
Motivation to engage in certain behaviors related to food waste reduction and Sensory experience	- The motivation of household members indirectly influences the amount of food waste generated. Motivation refers to an individual's desire or willingness to engage in practices that add to or reduce food waste. This motivation may arise from several kinds of factors, such as environmental concerns, economic considerations, or personal convictions. - Sensory experience is related to two hedonistic factors: the sensory properties of food, such as flavour, texture, and aroma, and sensory variations, which refer to the desire to avoid consuming the same food on consecutive days. When people enjoy the taste, texture, and smell of food, they're likely to eat more of it, reducing waste. Also, if they don't like eating the same thing all the time, they might throw away leftovers or make smaller portions, leading to less waste. So, sensory experiences strongly affect how much food gets wasted.
Behavioural Factors
Checking the label and Food management	- Individuals who frequently check product label has positive relationship with the higher level of food waste compared to those who do not. Individuals who check product labels may be more likely to discard food based on factors such as expiration dates, best-before dates, or perceived imperfections. - Checking foods in the refrigerator before going shopping prevents the frequency of disposing food - Food managements helps to reduce food waste
Food consumption, Shopping planning, and purchasing Storing	- Household food consumption has important role in shaping food demand and nitrogen emission, control of the food waste enables to reduce the nitrogen emission - Unnecessary food purchases lead to food waste, but planning shopping trips and adjusting their frequency based on home food availability can help prevent the food waste. - The appropriateness of storage is related to the types of food and makes the food have a longer shelf life
Cooking skills and Eating habits	- During the cooking process, householders should take into account the proportions required to meet the needs of every family member - Small packages should be used
Food sharing, Use leftover, and Shopping frequency	- Share leftover food with other people - Use leftover for composting - Recycle food waste product - Shopping less often can help cut down on food waste. By planning ahead and only buying what you need, you're less likely to end up with excess food that goes to waste.
Situational Factors
Food availability and Food accessibility	- Food availability is related to the food consumption and food waste - The easier it is to obtain food, the more impulsive purchases are made
Covid-19 pandemic and Social network support	- Covid 19 pandemics is affecting people to hoarding the food - Food waste dropped during the Covid 19 pandemic - Campaign about impact of food waste or climate change through social media tend to reduce food waste - Promotion or discount for food product leads the impulsive buying
Time, Culture, Religious, and Hospitality	- Consumer with the time and higher awareness were less likely to generate food waste - Takeaway food consumption and bring to the home is seen as a way to express love, devotion, and care for family member. But it tends to generate significant amounts of food waste - Religious values shape the food waste perception. Certain religious traditions emphasize resource conservation and waste reduction. Individuals who follow these teachings may be more mindful of reducing food waste as a religious obligation. - During religious holidays, the abundance of food and variety of temptations encourage people to purchase more than they need - The ethos of hospitality, which related to hosting family and friends with provides a lot of food, is factor that influences food waste.
Lifestyle and Technology	- Developing good lifestyle habits prevents the food waste - People who live frugally are not only associated with lower emissions, but they also emphasize the importance of social awareness - Update technology tend to encourage household members purchase the food through online application, it will generate more food waste
Food Attributes
Food price and Sustainable product	- Cheaper food products encourage overbuying - A sustainable product is an environmentally beneficial product
Food quality and Food types	- Product with the good quality has the longer shelf life - Perishable foods tend to generate more food waste due to their easier spoilage.

3.3.1 Household Attributes

The greater the amount of food waste generated at the household level, the more significant the environmental impact and the higher the potential for economic losses (Campoy-Muoz et al., 2017). Food waste production is also affected by household attributes. Previous studies discuss several attributes that are related to food waste production, namely education, age, household size, gender, presence of children, occupation, income and food expenditure, housing area, family commensality, health status of family members, household dietary diversity, household material, pets, space on the land (Table 4). The household consists of individuals who are environmentally conscious and value sustainability, the household may be characterized by behaviors such as composting, recycling, and minimizing food waste. Alternatively, if a household includes members who prioritize convenience and affordability, they may be more likely to rely on single-use products and generate higher levels of waste. The wide range of household attributes that contribute to food waste production will be discussed in the following section.

Education

The majority of urban residents have easier access to quality education. Urban areas provide the appropriate educational facilities. Children raised in urban environments tend to attain greater levels of human capital, which encompasses skills, knowledge, and abilities. However, this achievement is not solely attributed to urban living, it is also influenced by factors such as cognitive abilities and family characteristics (Maarseveen, 2021). Education has the potential to positively influence determinants of food waste reduction behaviour (Mariam, N., et. al., 2022). Some studies that were conducted in several countries also had similar results regarding the education level in food waste reduction. Educated urban people in China tend to hoard less food during the COVID-19 pandemic, thereby reducing food waste (Zhang, K. et al., 2022). In accordance with the results of the study conducted by Bunditsakulchai, P. and Liu, C., (2021), In Bangkok, higher education institutions exhibit a greater concern for global warming and social issues, notably emphasizing practices like segregating food waste before disposal. Studies conducted in Bangladesh, Iran, Malaysia, and Indonesia indicate that educated people are more aware of global warming and tend to reduce food waste production.

Age

This study addresses the role of age in reducing food waste, where a few studies have had the opposite results. Younger generations in Australia tend to generate food waste due to a lack of skill in food management. One of the strategies to reduce food waste is to encourage young consumers to be aware of the environmental impact caused by food waste (Karunasena GG et al., 2021). This study is in line with Li Y et al.'s (2021) attempt to show that Chinese young couples' households generate more food waste. Another study states contrary with the previous one, Chinese young people had weaker food hoarding (Zhang K et al., 2022). It is also caused by situational factors such as Covid-19 pandemic. In addition, there is an interrelationship between age and another factor, namely education, in tackling food waste. Chinese young people have a higher level of environmental awareness due to their education about environmental aspects (Chen J and Lie C., 2022). Age is associated with other factors in terms of reducing food waste, such as education, cooking skill, and situation that conditions and environment in which individuals reside, including factors such as their housing situation, household composition, socio-economic status, and geographical location.

Household Size

Household size is an antecedent of food waste production. Most Asian studies reveal that household size has positively relationship on food waste production (Ghani et. al., 2013; Fami et. al., 2021; Song et al., 2018). Fami et al. (2019) states that bigger family generates more food waste rather than the small families. This fact may be due to the higher frequency of events, such as birthday celebrations and weddings, that occur in large families. In contrast to previous research, Zhang et al. (2020) found that a larger family size had a negative impact on stockpiling preference, which contributed to the production of food waste. In China, single-person households also produce more food waste than larger households (Li et al, 2021). Interestingly, this fact has two side perspective between households size factor to the household food waste production.

Presence of Children

Children are a quiet powerhouse in Australian household food waste production. It indicates that parents must carry out interventions for the children's food behavior (Kansal et al., 2022; Karim & Tasnim, 2022). Children tend to have constantly changing food preferences and unpredictable feeding habits. It leads parents to make impetuous purchases. Moreover, the increasing number of children has a positive relationship on food waste, The greater the number of children, the greater the food waste produced. Specifically, food waste tended to occur with an increasing number of children in urban areas in China and Japan (Li et al., 2020; Nakamura et al., 2022).

Gender

Gender is one of the antecedents to reducing food waste at the urban household level (Cantaragiu, 2019; Nakamura et al., 2022). Women frequently prepare meals and have more opportunities than men to recognize food waste. They are more concerned with environmental awareness and reducing food waste at the household level and in families. Women with traditional values in a number of countries tend to be organized in household maintenance, particularly in decreasing food waste (Brizil & Biraglia, 2019). The majority of Asian countries (Japan, Indonesia, and China) adhere to traditional values in daily life. Moreover, Asian female households tend to have fewer plates of food waste than male households. The female household head means the women who maintain the allocate income for food expenses and non-food expenses, they usually make purchasing decisions for daily necessities for their families and maintain for food preparation. The households headed by females tend to generate less food waste compared to households headed by males. This indicates that gender plays a significant role in reducing food waste at the household level among urban dwellers.

3.3.1.6 Occupation, Income, and Food Expenditure

Food waste is substantially correlated with economic power factors, including occupation, income, and food expenditure (Kang et al., 2021; Karim & Tasnim, 2022; Allahyari et al., 2022). The majority of Asian households indicate that the shifting of economic power has an effect on food waste production in Asia Pacific, Bangladesh, Iran, and China. This study investigates the significance of occupation in reducing food waste. Workers tend to generate food waste. The majority of them lack sufficient time for cooking and eating at home. It leads to purchasing oversized portions of food from outside. This situation increases food waste, implying that occupation increases the frequency with which uneaten food is disposed of. On the other hand, unemployed and retired individuals, cooks, homemakers, and farmers in China can reduce food waste (Zhang et al., 2020). Income and food expenditure play an essential role in determining the food planning and purchasing that relate to reducing food waste (Abdallah et al., 2020; Li et al., 2021; Xing et al., 2021; Li et al., 2023). The Preventing food waste involves factors such as increasing economic empowerment, which fosters greater knowledge and skills, as well as saving costs for food, which directly contributes to waste reduction. Moreover, reducing overall expenditure can also lead to a decrease in food waste. But in some cases, Soma (2019) identified that urban Indonesians who have lower incomes tend to purchase large quantities of low-quality products. It results in discarding uneaten food due to the short shelf life of the food. As a consequence of increased food waste, urban dwellers with lower incomes produce more nitrogen greenhouse gases. Zhao L. and Chen H. (2021) show that household food expenditure is significantly related to a family’s willingness to sort garbage in China.

Housing Area and Family Commensality

To effectively prevent food waste, it is crucial to prioritize and allocate specific land and housing areas for attention and intervention (Zhao L & Chen H, 2021). Larger housing areas tend to generate fewer nitrogen emissions due to land availability and spaciousness. Moreover, the limited space availability drives people to do delivery orders for food more than households with a larger space, it leads produce more food waste. On the other hand, family based on commensality is reduce the food waste. Chen J. and Liu C. (2022) reveal that Chinese people in urban areas (Guangzhou) prefer consuming food with their families. It is an expression of their emotional care for each other, and this habit minimizes their household food waste. Interestingly, However, the essence of familial commensality is most evident when emotionally attached family members enjoy sharing food with one another. They typically take their time dining together and responsibility play significant roles in their food choice (Liu C. & Chen J., 2021). Thus, they seldom produce food surplus and food waste.

Health Status, Household Dietary Diversity, and Household Equipment

Li et al. (2021) and Min et. al., (2021) indicate that households with diabetic patients generate an excessive amount of food waste due to the fact that they have to provide more kinds of foods than families with non-dietary members. In addition, household material has impact on food waste production. Most of the family who have refrigerators will reduce their food waste (Fami et. al., 2019; Liu & Chen, 2020; Li et. al., 2021). The functional of refrigerators for food storage so it doesn't spoil and extend its shelf life. On some occasions, people may unintentionally forget to consume the food products stored in their refrigerators, leading to spoilage (Wong et. al., 2020). It is important to maintain the household food storage periodically.

Pets and Space of Land

Some researchers found that the household with the pets and having space of land reduce the food waste (Soma, 2019; Ham et. al., 2021). In Vietnamese culture, it is common for individuals to put their surplus food to feeding their pets. Ham et al. (2021) reveal that the food waste of urban households with pets was significantly lower than that of those without pets. Other factors is space of land, having space of land to compostleftovers will reduce the food waste indirectly (Soma., 2019; Nik Masdek et. al., 2023). However, a significant proportion of the Malaysian population keeps away from participating in composting practices mostly due to limited availability of space for composting activities.

3.3.2 Psychological Factors

Knowledge and Attitude to Practice Sustainable Food Waste Management

Knowledge and attitude prevent from food waste strongly (Fami et. al., 2019; Soma, 2019; Bunditsakulchai P. & Liu C., 2021; Allahyari et. al., 2022; Agdeppa et al., 2023; Bhatia S & Sharma S., 2023). Knowledge about food storage (Zhang et. al., 2020), composting (Soma, 2019), nutrition (Mint et. al., 2021) can help to reduce the food waste overall. Considering the awareness surrounding the potential health risks associated with consuming leftover meals and ingredients, individuals are more aware of their food consumption habits in relation to leftovers (Li et. al., 2021). Knowledge about the negative impact from food waste lead the attitude to reduce the food waste. Moreover, attitude lead to intention to practice sustainable food waste management. Wong et. al., (2020) state that being aware of negative attitude towards food consumption and perceived feelings of control over food waste have been found to hold a significant influence on individuals' undesirable food consumption behaviors.

Perceived Benefits, Subjective Norms and Social Norms

Most recent studies applied the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) to examine the antecedents of household food waste (Soma, 2019; Soorani & Ahmadvand, 2019; Oehman et. al., 2022). The factors of TPB that have potential to prevent the food waste at household levels are: perceived benefit (Wong et. al., 2020; Seng et. al., 2021; Diana et. al., 2023), subjective norm (Seng et. al., 2021; Diana et. al., 2023;Yingle et. al., 2023), and social norm (Aleshaiwi & Harries 2021). The strong influence of perceived benefits, particularly financial benefits, on the attitudes of young consumers who participate in home composting, in order to mitigate food waste, is necessary. There is a significant level of perceived behavioral and benefit control associated with the adoption of sustainable practices in food waste management. In addition, utilization of surplus food is dependent on current social norms that control the acceptability of consumption and distribution (Aleshaiwi & Harries 2021).

Environmental Awareness, Safety Awareness, and Convenience

Concerns about environmental awareness and safety awareness contribute to a positive attitude towards preventing food waste production (Chen J. & Liu C., 2021). Greater safety awareness was associated with a lower likelihood of generating food waste. Convenience is another another aspect associated with awareness. The consumption of takeaway food in China leads to an important amount of leftovers from home due to its convenience. In certain situations, convenience may either contribute to an increase in food waste or result in the decrease of food waste.

Motivation and Sensory Experience

Fami et. al. (2019) state that positive motivation has indirectly decreased the amount of food waste generated in Tehran. Motivation to prevent food waste has a positive influence on attitude and behavior. In addition, sensory experience influence the amount of food waste. Sensory experience is related to two hedonistic factors: the sensory properties of food, such as flavor, texture, and aroma, and sensory variations, which refer to the desire to avoid consuming the same food on consecutive days (Aleshaiwi & Harries, 2021). Consuming food with the same taste leads to an increase in food waste.

3.3.3 Behavioural Factors

Checking the Label and Food Management

Several studies demonstrate that implementing food management reduces food waste not merely in food businesses but also in households (Wong et. al., 2020; Bunditsakulchai P & Liu C., 2021; Nakamura et. al., 2022). Food management encompasses a wide range of activities from food preparation to consumption and disposal. Before purchasing food, it is critical to check the label to ensure that it is properly preserved. Checking the label significantly correlates with decrease food waste. (Wong et. al., 2020) and checking the ingredients of food also corelate with the amount of food waste (Bunditsakulchai P & Liu C., 2021). Moreover, checking goods in the refrigerator before going shopping reduces the frequency with which food is thrown away.

Food Consumption, Shopping Planning, Purchasing, and Storing

The study conducted by Xing et al. (2021) in China highlights the significant impact of household food consumption on both food demand and nitrogen emissions. To address this issue comprehensively, it is crucial to emphasize the importance of precise food consumption planning, as stressed by Wong et al. in their 2020 study conducted in Malaysia. Additionally, the adoption of a mindful approach to grocery shopping, as suggested by Bunditsakulchai and Liu (2021) in their recent research, offers promising in addressing the problem of excess purchasing and therefore reducing food waste. Zhang et al. (2020) conducted a study that emphasizes the negative effects of excessive food purchases on the quantity of food waste. Furthermore, the significance of food storage, as highlighted by Bunditsakulchai and Liu (2021), is closely linked to the characteristics of food products and has the capacity to significantly extend their period of suitability for consumption. In summary, the results mentioned above emphasize the importance of implementing purposeful strategies for food consumption in order to mitigate food waste and mitigate nitrogen emissions.

Cooking Skills and Eating Habits

Another behavioral factor that coheres with tackling food waste at the household level are cooking skills and eating habits (Fami et al., 2019; Iranmesh et al., 2022). Before preparing meals for families, householders should take into account the proportions required to meet the needs of every member of the family during the cooking process (Ham et al., 2021). These facts prove the effectiveness of reducing food waste among urban households in Hanoi, Vietnam. Consequently, the portion of food should not be excessive, or householders should use small packages for the meal. Individual eating habits can considerably effect food loss and waste (FLW) generation and management and GHG emissions. This includes nutritional and economic costs of various eating behaviors (Aldaco et. al., 2020).

Food Sharing, Use of Leftovers, and Shopping Frequency

The practice of distributing excess food to others, as proposed by Soma (2019) within the context of Indonesia, allows for not only mitigation of wastage but also for promoting social sustainability. An additional environmentally responsible method involves the utilization of food leftovers for the purpose of composting, as emphasized by Soma (2019) and confirmed by Iranmesh et al. (2022) that conducted the similar research in Iran. Furthermore, the implementation of food waste recycling initiatives is an appropriate strategy to fight against the issue of food waste. In addition, adjusting shopping frequency in accordance with the availability of food at home can contribute to the prevention of unnecessary purchases. Moreover, strategic purchasing planning by adjusting food availability in the household has the potential to effectively reduce food waste. This approach proves to be a helpful technique in our efforts to encourage responsible consumption and establish a more sustainable food system.

3.3.4 Situational Factors

Food Availability and Food Accessibility

There is a clear and strong correlation between the accessibility of food and its resulting usage and wastage. The easy accessibility of food frequently results in tendencies towards increased impulsive buying. Under such conditions, the ease of acquiring food may lead consumers to purchase quantities beyond their requirements, thus leading to an increase in food waste (Zhan et. al., 2022; Li et al., 2023). The previously mentioned problem emphasizes the complex correlation between food accessibility and our consumption patterns, thereby emphasizing the significance of conscious buying and consumption behaviors in mitigating the environmental and economic consequences associated with food waste (Diaz-Ruiz et. al., 2018).

Covid-19 pandemic and Social Network Support

The COVID-19 epidemic has led to significant changes in food-related behaviors and patterns of food waste. The study conducted by Iranmensh et al. (2022) in Iran provides insight into the phenomenon of food hoarding in the context of the pandemic, highlighting the psychological impacts of crises on individuals' food consumption patterns. Allahyari et al. (2022) observed a paradoxical relationship between the ongoing pandemic and food waste. Specifically, they found that food waste demonstrated a contrasting trend during the crisis, showing a drop. This decline in food waste might likely be caused by two factors: an increase in home cooking and an increased understanding of resource conservation. In addition, there has been an increase in the implementation of social media campaigns aimed at increasing awareness regarding the negative impacts of food waste and its role in exacerbating climate change. These campaigns have proven to be successful in their efforts to mitigate waste. Nevertheless, the practice of encouraging or offering discounts on food products has the potential to foster impulsive purchasing behavior. This highlights the importance of maintaining a careful balance between promoting responsible consumption and avoiding the promotion of wasteful desires in marketing techniques, particularly in times of difficulty.

Time, Culture, Religion and Hospitality

Previous study has demonstrated that individuals who have more flexible time and have a higher degree of knowledge regarding food waste are more likely to reveal a greater degree of contribution to this issue (Schanes et. al., 2018). This finding highlights the significance of personal behavior and consciousness in the context of waste reduction. It is interesting that the practice of consuming takeaway food and engaging in communal meals with family members, which are commonly perceived as expressions of affection and concern, can paradoxically lead to significant production of food waste. Moreover, the influence of religious beliefs on attitudes towards food waste is obvious, as demonstrated by Elimelech et al. (2023) in their research conducted in Israel. The authors noted that religious holidays often result in increased food consumption due to the availability of attractive options. The cultural value of hospitality, particularly in societies e.g. in China, where hosting means providing abundant food, additionally contributes to the issue of food waste. This highlights the importance of adopting a more equitable approach to food sharing and consumption that takes into account sociocultural beliefs and practices.

Lifestyle and Technology

The development of good lifestyle habits is of the utmost significance in mitigating food waste and its consequential environmental implications (Ogunmoroti et. al., 2022; Borghesi & Morone, 2023). Individuals who pursue frugal living habits not only mitigate their carbon emissions but also develop an enhanced feeling of social responsibility. Nevertheless, the current issue of technological advancements, including the promotion of online food purchasing platforms, may accidentally encourage an increase in food waste as an outcome of impulsive or excessive buying habits. Therefore, it is essential to achieve an optimal balance between technological advancements and mindful consumption in order to effectively address the issue of food waste and foster environmentally friendly behaviors.

3.3.5 Food Attributes

Food Price and Sustainable Product

The study conducted by Agdeppa et al. (2023) in the Philippines proves that the affordability of food products has the capacity to stimulate excessive purchasing behaviors among customers. This phenomena highlights an intricate connection between pricing strategies and consumer behavior. Furthermore, this statement highlights the significance of promoting sustainable products, as they not only align with environmental objectives but also contribute as a strategy to address excessive purchasing behaviors, thereby fostering a more equal and environmentally conscious consumer culture. Sustainability is an essential element of responsible consumerism, offering an opportunity to achieve a more harmonious living with our world, particularly the case in most Arab countries where reducing food loss and food waste is essential for sustainable food system (Abiad & Meho, 2018).

Food Quality and Food Types

Diana et al. (2023) revealed a positive relationship between product quality and shelf life in Southeast ASEAN. This discovery emphasizes the inherent connection between the quality of a product and its durability, consequently highlighting the possibility to mitigate food waste through the establishing of higher quality standards. Perishable food items, defined by their vulnerability to decomposition, are a major contributor to food waste due to their fundamental tendency for degradation. These observations emphasize the significance of enhancing product quality and adopting efficient solutions for the management and reduction of food waste, particularly for perishable goods. This is crucial for fostering sustainability and encouraging responsible consumption patterns within the region (Garcia et. al., 2017).

The management of food waste in urban areas is significantly contributing to climate change and greenhouse gas emissions. Assessing the amount of food waste at the household level presents challenges and lacks reliable numerical information, particularly in Asian countries. Thus, this study identified the antecedents contributing to food waste among households in urban areas of Asian countries to mitigate the food waste production. The majority of investigations conducted in China over the previous five years. As a result, a relatively small amount of studies on household food waste have focused on the urban landscape. It indicates that a lack of awareness about urbanization links with the production of food waste. Through a systematic review, this study categorized the antecedents of food waste into five domains: household attributes, psychological factors, behavioral factors, situational factors, and food attributes. Scholars have underscored how each of these domains can positively influence food waste reduction. These insights provide a valuable framework for monitoring and managing food at the household level. The study emphasizes the importance of understanding consumer needs, family dynamics, consumption patterns, and raising awareness about the environmental impact of food waste. By addressing these aspects, households can work towards minimizing food waste and its adverse effects on the environment. Responsible buying, production, consumption, and disposal habits are essential components of this effort, in term of in urban areas. Furthermore, this research holds significance for policymakers, offering insights into how to effectively control food waste production within communities. It highlights the need for educational initiatives that empower household members to engage in sustainable production and consumption in food management, including composting and food storage maintenance. In essence, the findings of this study underscore the urgency of tackling food waste in urban areas and offer a comprehensive framework for addressing this critical issue. By understanding and addressing the antecedents of food waste, we can collectively work towards a more sustainable production and consumption and environmentally responsible future.

The study has several limitations. Firstly, it relies on articles published between 2018 and 2023, which constitutes a relatively narrow timeframe and primarily focuses on Asian household food waste within urban areas. Secondly, the study does not incorporate book chapters, proceedings, or books, which could have enriched the framework for understanding household food waste in urban landscapes. Thirdly, the period from 2018 to 2023 encompasses the COVID-19 pandemic, which introduced significant shifts in consumer behavior. However, the study does not differentiate between consumer habits during the pandemic and in the post-pandemic period.

Author Contribution

Silvia Dewi Sagita Andik, Joanna Rakowska: Conceptualization, Methodology,. Silvia Dewi Sagita Andik.: Writing- Original draft preparation. Silvia Dewi Sagita Andik: Visualization,. Joanna Rakowska: Supervision.:, Validation.: Joanna Rakowska Writing- Reviewing and Editing.

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Tackling Food Waste in Urban Landscapes: A Systematic Review of Household Food Waste in Asian Countries

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Abstract

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1. Introduction

2. Methods

2.1 Data Sources and Search Strategy

2.2 Eligible Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

2.3 Data Extraction and Synthesis based on PRISMA

3. Results

3.1 Study Selection

3.2 Study Characteristics

3.2.1 Research Design

3.2.2 Methodology of Studies

3.3 Results of Syntheses

3.3.1 Household Attributes

3.3.1.6 Occupation, Income, and Food Expenditure

3.3.2 Psychological Factors

3.3.3 Behavioural Factors

3.3.4 Situational Factors

3.3.5 Food Attributes

4. Discussions

Declarations

Author Contribution

References

Additional Declarations

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Version 1