The viability of an Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) approach to alleviate potable water shortages, the case of Chimoio, Mozambique

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-4979533/v1

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Case Report

The viability of an Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) approach to alleviate potable water shortages, the case of Chimoio, Mozambique

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4979533/v1

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The study examines water management in Chimoio, Mozambique while focusing on water availability, distribution, quality, and stakeholder participation through data collected via questionnaires and interviews. The are significant challenges in urban water supply being experienced in Chimoio, for instance, water stress due to unreliable supply and infrastructure issues. While the majority of the population relies on municipal and groundwater sources, water shortages and high non-revenue water (NRW) levels persist. There is a public health risk concern and low economic growth due to water scarcity. Water scarcity seem to be mostly due to economic constraints, rather than ecological factors. Water quality concerns are prevalent, with a significant portion of the population relying on untreated groundwater, raising health risks. The study also highlights the limited implementation of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and inadequate wastewater treatment and recycling practices in the city. Despite government promotion of IWRM, local efforts remain inadequate, especially in stakeholder and public participation in water management. The research emphasizes the need for innovative and sustainable water management practices, including the promotion of rainwater harvesting and active leakage control, to address water shortages and improve overall water governance in Chimoio.

Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM)

Municipal water

Groundwater

Water scarcity

water stress

Non-revenue water

Rainwater harvesting

wastewater

water treatment

sustainability

Water is essential for ecosystems and human development, serving as a cornerstone for sustainable development (UNESCO-WWAP 2015). It is integral to several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), including food security (SDG-2), health (SDG-3), resilient cities (SDG-11), and ecosystem protection (SDG-15). The depletion and quality deterioration of groundwater systems threaten the success of these SDGs (Agramont 2022). Despite common misconceptions, only 3% of Earth's water is freshwater, with a mere third of that accessible for human use. Consequently, 1.1 billion people lack access to water, 2.7 billion experience water scarcity, and 2.4 billion face inadequate sanitation, leading to water-borne diseases and millions of deaths annually.

Urbanization, population growth, and climate change exacerbate global water scarcity. Agriculture, consuming 70% of freshwater, often loses significant amounts through unsustainable practices. Mozambique's urban population, expected to reach 50% by 2025, faces increased water stress due to high demand and inefficient management (FIPAG 2021). Urban water scarcity solutions include improving water use efficiency, infrastructure development, and investment, though these are challenging for low to middle-income countries like Mozambique.

Adopting Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is a promising approach for addressing urban water shortages. The World Water Council, involving diverse stakeholders, advocates for alternative water management strategies, leading to the global endorsement of IWRM (Gareau & Crow 2006; Conca 2007; Cherlet 2012). Many cities are adopting sustainable practices such as aquifer recharging and stormwater management to meet rising water demands (Sahu & Debsarma 2023; Talat 2021). Sustainable development, as defined by the Brundtland report, emphasizes meeting present needs without compromising future generations (Hajiani & Kashani 2021; Keeble 1988). Achieving sustainability requires an integrated approach, balancing economic, environmental, and social goals (Kuhlman & Farrington 2010).

The global shift towards IWRM integrates environmental, social, and economic considerations, promoting an ecological approach to land use and planning (Galaz 2007). IWRM is essential for aligning water management with biophysical realities and capitalizing on scientific advancements (Van der Zaag & Gupta, 2008).

1.1 Study Area

This study was conducted in Chimoio, the capital of Mozambique's Manica Province. Chimoio, with a metro population of 507,000 (2024), is a rapidly growing city located at 19°12'S latitude, 33°47'W longitude, and 732 m elevation (Cangela et al., 2023; Ferrao, Mendez, & Painho 2017). Covering 177.40 km², Chimoio has a humid subtropical climate with dry winters, hot summers, and annual rainfall of 800–1000 mm.

Water management in Chimoio is governed by Mozambique’s national laws, including the Water Law (Law 16/91), which emphasizes public water use, basin management, and the polluter-pays principle (Boletim da Republica 1991). The regulation of public water distribution (Decree 30/2003) and water quality (Decree 180/2004) aim to ensure proper water management and public health (Boletim da Republica 2004).

Chimoio's water supply is managed by Aguas da Regiao Centro (AdRC) under contracts with FIPAG. While efforts have been made towards universal water access, there is still limited focus on sustainable management of water resources. The city's reliance on groundwater and international water resources highlights the need for an Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) system to ensure long-term water sustainability. Chimoio faces escalating water scarcity due to population growth, erratic rainfall, and inadequate infrastructure. There is a pressing need to explore the potential of implementing IWRM in Chimoio to enhance water security and sustainability. This study aims to address this need by examining how IWRM can protect water sources, increase supply, and contribute to sustainable development.

Rapid urbanization, driven by population growth, is reshaping cities globally, often with annual expansion rates as high as 8% (World Population Review, 2021). Over half of the global population now resides in urban areas, and this figure continues to rise (UN-Habitat, 2020; UNDESA, 2018). As cities grow, they face significant water-related challenges like scarcity, pollution, and climate change (van Leeuwen, 2013). Urbanization places immense pressure on water resources, and water withdrawals have tripled in the last 50 years due to population growth (He et al., 2021). The uncontrolled demand for water, alongside pollution and climate change, has intensified water scarcity issues in urban areas (UNESCO, 2021). Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) is recognized as a vital approach to address these challenges.

Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land, and related resources to maximize economic and social welfare without compromising sustainability (UN, 2015; Braga & Lotufo, 2008). Despite its theoretical endorsement, implementing IWRM poses challenges due to its broad scope and lack of specific methods (Nagata et al., 2021). IWRM integrates water management across sectors, such as supply, quality, environmental control, and infrastructure development, and emphasizes public involvement to ensure sustainability (Grigg, 2008; Bouwer, 1999, 2000). Water reuse, including wastewater reclamation and recycling, is also crucial in mitigating water scarcity (Meran et al., 2021).

In Africa, countries like Egypt, Ethiopia, and Ghana have implemented institutional and legal reforms to adopt IWRM principles (Kasbohm et al., 2009). These reforms align with the Dublin Principles, which emphasize the finite nature of freshwater, the need for participatory decision-making, the central role of women, and the economic value of water (Kasbohm et al., 2009; Swatuk, 2005; Gorre-Dale, 1992). To implement IWRM, key concepts include stakeholder engagement, sustainability, integration, and adaptive management (Badham et al., 2019; Xie, 2006). Effective water governance, accurate data, infrastructure development, ecosystem protection, and demand management are essential components of successful IWRM (Mehta & Movik, 2014; Meran et al., 2021).

IWRM fosters sustainable water use by improving water supply systems, reducing losses, and encouraging the use of alternative sources like rainwater harvesting and wastewater recycling. By ensuring reliable water supplies, cities can better meet the demands of growing populations (UNESCO, 2012; Assefa et al., 2019). Water is a critical resource linked to fundamental human rights, including the right to life, food, and health. However, water availability varies geographically, and urbanization disrupts the hydrological cycle, leading to issues like pollution and degraded ecosystems (Yannopoulos et al., 2019; Marselek et al., 2006). Global water availability is decreasing due to erratic rainfall, demographic pressures, climate change, and technological shifts (Lenton & Muller, 2009). By 2030, a 40% global water deficit is projected, with countries like China already experiencing severe shortages (Liu et al., 2014; Jiang, 2015). To address these challenges, better water management, including infrastructure investment and efficient water use, is crucial (Schulte, 2014; Bouwer, 2002).

A strong enabling environment is essential. This includes setting goals for water use, protection, and conservation, improving legislative frameworks, enhancing financing and incentives, and allocating resources to meet water needs.

Clear institutional rules are crucial, such as defined institutional roles, building capacity, developing human resources, ensuring transparency, and involving stakeholders in decision-making.

Effective management and technical tools are needed for water resource assessment, planning, demand management, conflict resolution, allocation, and information exchange.

Additionally, alternative sources like rainwater harvesting (RWH) and greywater can bolster water supply. UNESCO (2012) notes the importance of integrating water, wastewater, and stormwater management in urban planning.

The urgency for sustainable water management is evident. The UN Water (2023) report indicates a 54% global implementation of Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). However, this transition requires collaboration among communities, stakeholders, and policymakers. Brown et al. (2009), as cited in Herslund and Mguni (2019), highlight six stages in urban water management: water supply, hygiene through sewerage, and flood protection through drainage and rainwater harvesting. Rainwater Harvesting Systems (RWHS) involve collecting, treating, and using rainwater from roofs and impermeable surfaces (Campisano et al., 2017; Lee et al., 2016). RWHS reduces urban flooding and alleviates water scarcity (Hafizi et al., 2018). Stormwater can also be used for non-potable purposes like irrigation and aquifer recharge (UNESCO 2012). However, challenges like low rainfall, high costs, and lack of resources hinder RWHS development in Africa. Despite this, countries like Botswana, South Africa, and Zimbabwe are expanding RWHS, with Japan providing subsidies and loans for installations (Furumai et al., 2008).

Groundwater sustainability is critical, especially in places like North Kordofan, Sudan, where overexploitation is a concern. The government implemented IWRM projects, involving stakeholders in monitoring groundwater levels (Nagata et al., 2022). This highlights the importance of shared concerns and collaborative solutions in water management.

Implementing IWRM in African cities faces several challenges, including limited infrastructure and resources, rapid urbanization, and climate change, which disrupts water availability and quality (Agyenim & Gupta 2012). Water-related urban hazards like droughts, floods, pollution, and land subsidence further complicate IWRM implementation. Inequitable access to water, weak governance, and lack of data exacerbate these issues (Grigg 1999; Keen 2003; Wallace et al., 2003). Community engagement, financing, and regional cooperation are vital for overcoming these challenges.

Cities play a crucial role in freshwater management. Sustainable urban water management (SUWM) requires integrating urban design with water services and fostering social-political capital (Wong & Brown 2009). For example, China's urban flooding issues stem from inadequate drainage systems (Jiang et al., 2018). Future city planning should prioritize ecosystem services to protect water resources. In Africa, countries like Kenya and South Africa have made strides in adopting IWRM principles. Kenya, a leader in RWH, has developed policies and technologies to address water scarcity (Dirwai et al., 2021). South Africa, through initiatives like the Mhlatuze Catchment project, is progressing towards IWRM, though challenges remain, such as limited capacity and collaboration (Funke et al., 2007).

China, with 20% of the global population but only 7% of its water resources, faces significant water stress due to rapid economic growth (Asian Development Bank, 2015). Liaoning province, in particular, struggled with water shortages and pollution in the 1980s, exacerbated by low water use efficiency and inadequate conservation knowledge. Efforts like the Liaoning Cleaner Water Project and the EU–Liaoning Water Resource Planning Project significantly improved water quality, reduced pollution by 60%, and restored ecosystems (UN, 2008).

These case studies illustrate the diverse challenges and successes in IWRM implementation globally. While developed countries are more advanced in water resources development, rainwater harvesting remains an area for growth in many regions.

Africa has major river basins and large aquifers that, if managed properly, could ensure sustainability. Implementation of IWRM requires financial resources, which are supported by international organizations such as the World Bank and African Development Bank. Frameworks like the African Water Vision 2025 and regional initiatives like SADC and the Nile Basin Initiative promote IWRM. Many African communities also possess traditional water management knowledge that can be integrated into IWRM. However, challenges remain, including overlooked ecological and socio-political complexities, leading to suboptimal implementation (Mehta & Movik, 2014).

IWRM is therefore crucial for addressing urban water challenges, ensuring sustainable supplies, resilience to climate change, environmental protection, economic growth, and social equity (Koop et al., 2022). Effective implementation requires overcoming governance challenges and making necessary investments in infrastructure. Identifying strengths and areas for improvement in water management is essential for success (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2021; Koop et al., 2017; OECD, 2015). Despite challenges, IWRM remains a vital strategy for managing global water resources sustainably.

3.1 Introduction

The study adopts a mixed-methods design, integrating both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Quantitative methods (e.g., surveys) support the hypothesis of water shortages in Chimoio, analysed using descriptive statistics (Liku, Herslund & Mguni, 2018; Creswell, 2003). The qualitative component involves naturalistic inquiry, providing in-depth insights (Williams, 2007). This hybrid design enhances the robustness of the findings (Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The data collected for the purpose of this study is available and can be provided within reasonable time of request.

3.2 Population and Sample Selection

The study focuses on Chimoio city residents, excluding rural zones. Two sampling methods were used: purposive sampling for interviews and systematic sampling for questionnaires. Purposive sampling selected participants based on their roles in decision-making, while systematic sampling selected 105 participants from different residential areas to represent the broader population (Etikan et al., 2015; Elijah, 2019).

The Data Collection Instruments were questionnaires and interviews. A structured questionnaire gathered quantitative data, covering water usage perception, infrastructure, conservation awareness, and decision-making involvement. A total of 105 questionnaires were administered (Elijah, 2019). Semi-structured interviews provided qualitative insights, conducted in Portuguese with participants selected based on relevance to the study’s objectives. Questionnaires were distributed electronically, and interviews were conducted with prior consent. The interviews were recorded for later analysis.

Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages) and inferential techniques (regression analysis) were used to analyse survey data (Pearl, 2009; Kuhar, Breed & Moore, 2010), and thematic analysis was applied to interview data, identifying recurring themes and patterns, which were then triangulated with quantitative findings (Bachiochi & Weiner, 2004). Quantitative and qualitative data were integrated during the interpretation phase to ensure a comprehensive understanding of the research objectives. Ethical principles such as informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity were strictly followed. No personal identifiers were collected. The study's limitations include a potential bias due to data collection being limited to internet users, possibly excluding less privileged groups. This may affect the generalizability of the findings.

3.3 Ethical Considerations

This research was approved by the European University of Lefke Research and Publication Ethics Board. It adhered to ethical principles outlined by the board, including informed consent, confidentiality, and anonymity. Participants were informed of the sore purpose of the research, they were informed about their rights, and their voluntary participation was emphasized. No personal data like names, email addresses, house numbers was collected during the study.

A total of 105 respondents were surveyed in Chimoio through the use of the questionnaire, and three organisations namely, AdRC, Municipality of Chimoio and the Local Government were interviewed. The quantitative data collected through the questionnaire are shown below:

A total of 105 people responded to the questionnaire and these were from twenty-nine different residential areas out of a total of thirty -three residential areas found in the city. The gender distribution is shown in Table 4.1 below:

Table 4.1: Gender Distribution

The table illustrates that 54.3% of respondents were male and 45.7% were female. The data showed that 38 of the 105 respondents fell under the 35–44 year age group. 42 people were under the 25–34 age group, while 16 were under the 18–24 year age group, and 09 were in the 44 + age group. The relationship between gender and age can be summarised in Fig. 4.1 below:

Figure 4.2 depicts the age distribution, with the highest numbers in the 25–34 and 35–44 age groups, and the least in the 44 + age group. Most of the respondents indicated that they had some form of employment, with three respondents indicating that they were unemployed. Out of the 105 respondents, 28 males and 21 females indicated their jobs are related to water resources, while more than 50% do not depend on water resources for their work.

4.2 Availability of Water in Chimoio

Access to potable water is mostly through a taps in the homesteads (85.7%), while 2.9% access water from a neighbour’s tap, 4.8% from a community distribution point, while 11.4% expressed that they accessed from other points which are not those stated above as shown in Fig. 4.2 below:

A total of 97(92.4%) out of 105 indicated that they have access to potable water and 08 (7.6%) expressed that they had no access to potable water. When asked about their primary sources of water, most indicated that tap water as their primary source, followed by boreholes/wells as shown in the graph below:

In addition to the main sources mentioned above, respondents also indicated the use of supplementary water sources. A total of 41% use protected wells, 16.8% use unprotected wells, and 10.5% have access to personal boreholes.

Despite having potable water access, 79% experience water stress, with 57% accessing water for less than six hours a day, and this scenario is more common in some residential areas than in others. Figure 4.4 below shows hours of water supply indicated by the respondents:

Most respondents (57.1%) have less than 6 hours of water supply, and 73.3% have between 6 and 12 hours. Only 3.8% report never having water supply, possibly due to lack of an active contract or persistent supply issues. This indicates limited access for many. The residents cope with this water stress they face by using alternative sources of water, and also by buying water. Further, 84.8% of respondents experienced 24 hours without water, suggesting significant supply issues. Of those who responded, 12.4% expressed that they were not affected by water unavailability, 39.0% were moderately affected, and 48.6% were extremely affected. Only 2.9% of the respondents find the water suppliers to be very reliable, 25.7% reliable, and 25.7% neutral. However, 35.2% see them as unreliable and 10.5% as very unreliable, indicating issues with service delivery.

Water Quality

The results show mixed sentiments about water quality: 4.8% very satisfied, 30.5% satisfied, 24.8% neutral, 31.4% unsatisfied, and 8.6% very unsatisfied, and they perceive the water quality through the use of a number of indicators as shown below:

Taste and colour are major indicators of water quality, with taste (45.7%) being the most cited. On dealing with the poor quality of water, 9.5% expressed that they report to the relative authorities, 37.1% resort to boiling the water, 41.0% buy water, and 12.4% take no action.

Further, there seem to be a strong positive correlation (0.623) that exists between satisfaction with water quality and evaluation of the water supply. This can be seen in Table 4.2 below:

Table 4.2

Correlation Between Evaluation of Supply and Satisfaction with Quality
Correlations
		Satisfaction with quality	Evaluation of supply
Satisfaction with quality	Pearson Correlation	1	.623^**
	Sig. (2-tailed)		< .001
	N	105	105
Evaluation of supply	Pearson Correlation	.623^**	1
	Sig. (2-tailed)	< .001
	N	105	105
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Economic value of Water

A significant portion of respondents perceive water as costly: 50.5% find it very expensive, 29.5% find it expensive, and 15.2% find it fair. Only 2.9% consider it cheap, 1.0% very cheap, and 1.0% have no opinion due to lack of access. This suggests affordability issues might impact access to clean water. Leaks and damages to water infrastructure are also common as shown in Fig. 4.6 below:

82.9% have experienced leaks or damages, 14.3% have not, and 2.9% are unsure.

On the issue of involvement in issues concerning water management, 12.4% are aware of water supply projects, while 87.6% are not, highlighting a need for better communication about ongoing projects. Also, 28.6% received information on water conservation, 71.4% did not, indicating a need for educational outreach. Further, 11.4% are always involved in water supply matters, 19.0% sometimes, 28.6% rarely, and 41.0% never, which may affect community engagement. There seem to be very little participation of the residents of Chimoio is meeting concerning water supply with 88.6% of the respondents indicating that they do not participate in water management meetings. On the issue of public consultancy, 48.6% are unsure about public consultancy on water issues, 45.7% believe it does not exist, and 5.7% think it does, suggesting a need for clearer communication about public consultations.

4.2 Qualitative Data Analysis

The qualitative data collected through interviews and field observations has been analysed under different subtopics as follows:

Water Supply System and Challenges

Interviews with key organizations revealed that the water supply system in Chimoio faces challenges such as infrastructure issues, high demand, and water theft. Less than 50% of the population has access to potable water. New projects aimed at upgrading infrastructure and increasing water supply capacity were mentioned.

Community Engagement and Sustainability

The interviews highlighted the importance of community engagement in water management, with initiatives aimed at promoting water conservation and sustainability. However, challenges remain in ensuring widespread community involvement.

Climate Resilience and Water Quality

AdRC and local government efforts include measures to improve water quality, maintain infrastructure, and prepare for climate-related challenges. However, there is room for improvement in rainwater management and flood prevention strategies. On water quality, AdRC mentioned rigorous monitoring practices to ensure the quality of drinking water throughout the treatment and distribution process, highlighting a commitment to public health and safety. The interview showed that they have a laboratory where the quality of the water is assessed. The water also goes through two treatment processes, that is, filtration and chlorination. They use Rapid Water filtration using a filter made up of three layers of sand, fine stone and gravel as seen below:

(Description: A photograph showing the top part of the rapid sand filter used in water treatment at Chicamba.)

After filtration, the water then goes through the chlorination before being distributed for consumption. Below is a pictures of the granular chlorine dosing station and that of drums of stored granular chlorine:

Beside the granular chlorine, the station also uses chlorine gas as indicated in the photographs below:

After chlorination, the water is ready for consumption and it is distributed to the respective cities from the pump station. Below are photographs of pump station and the pump lines:

Pumping station overview Chimoio City pumping Lines

Equity and Accessibility

Efforts being made to ensure equitable water access include reduced rates for low-income families and collaboration with stakeholders. However, inconsistencies in water supply across different residential areas remain a concern.

The data collected through questionnaires and interviews highlights key issues, such as water availability, distribution, conservation, management, and adaptation to climate change and extreme weather events.

5.1 Urban Water Supply and Availability

Urban water supply infrastructure includes surface water diversions, wells, pumps, transmission pipes, canals, treatment facilities, storage facilities, and distribution networks (VanBriesen et al., 2014). Chimoio's water is sourced from Chicamba Dam, which also supplies Manica, Gondola, Messica, and Chicamba (Sopa & Fernandes, 2023). Most respondents indicated reliance on both municipal and groundwater sources, with tap water and borehole/well water being the primary sources. Despite access to potable water, many face water stress due to supply interruptions lasting more than 24 hours. The lack of water supply continuity may stem from infrastructure challenges or high demand.

A significant number of respondents are affected by water unavailability, with many receiving water for less than 12 hours daily, making it difficult to place Chimoio on the SDG ladder for drinking water. While 85.7% of respondents have taps in their homes, water is not always available when needed. According to UNICEF, 65% of Mozambique's urban population has access to water on premises, but data on contamination is lacking (UNICEF, 2023). Based on AdRC data (46% of the population has access to tap water), many in Chimoio likely fall under basic, limited, and unimproved service levels.

Mozambique does not experience extreme water stress like countries in the Middle East, where 83% of the population faces high stress (WRI, 2023). Chimoio's water shortage may be due to economic factors such as inadequate water storage and sanitation facilities, rather than ecological factors. Collaboration between AdRC, the municipality, and the local government has led to efforts like drilling boreholes and inspecting wells, but issues persist.

Water stress in Chimoio affects public health and economic activities, highlighting the need for innovative and sustainable water management practices. Cholera outbreaks in the region may be linked to poor sanitation and limited access to clean water. Residents cope with water shortages by using alternative sources, storing water, and buying water. However, rainwater harvesting is uncommon, indicating potential for further exploration.

Chimoio's water infrastructure faces challenges such as excessive use, equipment malfunctioning, and insufficient funding for maintenance. Addressing these issues requires collaborative efforts and sustainable practices to ensure reliable water access.

5.2 Economic Value of Water

Water is considered an economic good, as per the Dublin Principle, meaning it should be treated as a priced commodity. In Chimoio, water prices are fixed per unit, but many consumers find the cost expensive. Challenges like pipe breakages, vandalization, and water theft worsen the situation. Non-revenue water (NRW) is high, with significant water loss during transmission and distribution. NRW issues are common in developing countries, where utilities often ration water supply due to poor maintenance (Kangangi, 2015).

In Chimoio, most respondents receive water for less than six hours daily, with AdRC rationing supply. Though AdRC has a team to address leakages, the speed of response is crucial to minimizing water loss (Farley, 2003). Reducing NRW requires addressing the awareness time (time from leak onset to detection), location time, and repair time (Fanner & Lambert, 2009).

5.3 Water Quality

In Mozambique, potable water quality is regulated by the 2004 Law, which outlines standards for human consumption (Boletim da Republica 2004). Water treatment is essential to remove harmful substances that could pose health risks. Treatment processes include physical, biological, and chemical methods, with parameters like turbidity, colour, taste, and odour used to assess quality (Brenner and Hoekstra 2012).

Survey data revealed mixed feelings about water quality, with 31.4% of respondents dissatisfied and 8.6% very dissatisfied. Only 4.8% were very satisfied. Many respondents judged water quality based on its colour (44.8%), taste (45.7%), and odour (34.3%). AdRC, the local water supplier, admitted to turbidity issues during the rainy season, which can lead to chemical imbalances. These challenges echo findings from Ethiopia, where 43.2% of urban residents judged water quality by colour, often attributing issues to chlorination (Addisie 2022).

Despite consumer concerns, AdRC adheres to regulated water treatment standards, using filtration and chlorination to monitor water quality. However, contamination during distribution remains a concern. A study in Moamba found that while treated water left the plant clean, it became contaminated with E. coli by the time it reached homes, likely due to pipe ingress (van den Berg et al., 2021). Chicamba water treatment plant uses a rapid sand filter system, which is cost-effective and requires less labour (Di Marcantonio et al., 2020). After filtration, the water is chlorinated before distribution. Nonetheless, a significant portion of Chimoio's population relies on untreated groundwater from wells and boreholes. Nearly 42% of survey respondents admitted to not treating their water, raising concerns about health risks. Although the municipality promotes the use of the disinfectant Certeza, its effectiveness is limited, especially in water with high organic matter (Brudefors and Kac 2014).

5.4 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Challenges

There is little effort in Chimoio to manage water resources sustainably. AdRC focuses on restricting supply rather than monitoring water levels at Chicamba Dam or managing groundwater. This lack of monitoring and the absence of wastewater treatment and recycling hinder sustainable water management. Despite the government's promotion of IWRM, implementation remains limited at the local level (Gallego-Ayala and Juizo 2011; Inguane et al., 2014).

5.4.1 Wastewater Treatment and Recycling

Chimoio's wastewater treatment efforts are minimal. Although the municipality claims to have a treatment plant, it is not fully operational, and most residents rely on septic tanks or pit latrines. Improved wastewater management could help achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6, which focuses on access to safe drinking water and sanitation (Fito and Van Hulle 2021).

5.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is uncommon in Chimoio, with only 1.9% of respondents using harvested rainwater. The municipality has yet to implement RWH projects, although it is under consideration. RWH could help mitigate floods, increase urban moisture levels, and provide an alternative water source for non-potable uses (Raimondi et al., 2023; Global Water Partnership 2017).

5.5 Non-Revenue Water (NRW)

High levels of non-revenue water (NRW) due to leaks, infrastructure damage, and water theft are prevalent in Chimoio. AdRC reports losses through theft and admits to infrastructure challenges, especially during the rainy season. Addressing NRW is crucial, as it leads to water shortages and potential contamination during supply interruptions. Active leakage control and the use of higher-quality materials could help reduce these losses (Frauendorfer and Liemberger 2010; Kanakoudis et al., 2014).

5.6 Involvement of Stakeholders and Women in Water Management

Stakeholder participation in water management in Chimoio City involves a mix of private, public, and NGO contributions. The private company AdRC is responsible for water supply, with FIPAG as the public investor. The government plays a role through policy implementation, but direct involvement is limited, focusing more on collaboration with private entities. NGOs assist mainly in erosion control and water quality through equipment provision, while international partners like the World Bank, China, and the Netherlands also contribute.

Community involvement, however, remains low. AdRC meets with the public infrequently, typically once or twice a year, and communication is primarily to report issues rather than engage in decision-making. Survey responses indicate limited community participation, with 41% stating they are never involved and 28.6% rarely involved in water management decisions. Furthermore, 87.6% of respondents were unaware of ongoing water-related projects, despite the existence of such initiatives. Public consultation is vital for transparency and inclusivity in water governance. Enhancing public engagement and awareness is crucial for improving the effectiveness of water management in Chimoio. Stakeholder participation in water management ensures that decision-makers are more accountable, and that all interests are considered. This participation fosters efficient planning and policy implementation and strengthens relationships with communities. Adom and Simatele (2022) identify the key stakeholders as the private sector (corporations, trade associations, investors, consumers), the public sector (government), and civil society (community, NGOs).

Regarding gender participation, field observations show that women manage community boreholes, but AdRC does not directly involve women or the community in water management. The municipality, however, collaborates with women and NGOs like WaterSan Mozambique and Solidar Switzerland. Studies from India and Ghana highlight limited female participation in water management, often restricted to physical labour and fee collection, with decision-making largely dominated by men (Khandker et al., 2020; Elijar, 2019).

Table 5.1

IWRM Implementation in Chimoio
IWRM Principles and key concepts	Level of implementation and understanding in Chimoio
Water as a finite and vulnerable resource	A general understanding by the population as seen by their efforts in practicing water conservation
Involvement of users, planners, and policy Makers	- Low involvement of users - Stakeholder involvement seem very high. - Policy makers also highly involved in water management as seen by the continuous reforms of water governing policies
Involvement of women	There is no clear involvement off women although it is mentioned that there is a gender policy that promotes the equal participation of women
The economic value of water	- Users said to have a minimum grasp of the economic value of water. Understanding the economic value of water is important as it encourages sustainable use and protection of water resources (SIWI 2020) - There is still use of many free water sources that jeopardise the people’s understanding of the economic value of water - The pricing of the water is regarded high by the users and this might be due to the expenses that the water providers incur in treating and distributing the water.
Stakeholder Involvement	- Government is highly involved. - Some level of NGOs involvement - Low local community involvement
Sustainability	- Low emphasis on sustainability in water supply and management - Very little rainwater harvesting. - Little or no wastewater treatment and recycling.
Integration	- Integration is clear at Chicamba as water is allocated for different economic uses like agriculture, hydroelectric generation, domestic water use, fishing, etc. This is being managed with very little conflicts within the Chicamba reservoir.
Adaptive Measure	- Low adaptive measures to climate change with the focus being on adapting to the growing population and trying to extend coverage of the water supply system to cover everyone.

The implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) can however vary widely, with different countries adopting approaches suited to their specific needs and contexts (Agyenim, 2011).

The aim of this study was to analyse how an IWRM system can improve the potable water situation in Chimoio and to assess the potential and challenges of implementation. The results show that indeed there is a shortage of potable water in Chimoio and there is a need of sustainable management of the resource to increase supply. The concept of IWRM however is influenced by many factors such as history, culture, and politics (Holmström 2019).

The assessment of water availability, distribution, management, and quality in Chimoio reveals a complex interplay of factors influencing the city's water system. While Chimoio benefits from access to the Chicamba dam as a primary water source, challenges in infrastructure, distribution, and management contribute to water stress and affect the quality-of-service delivery. The reliance on both municipal and groundwater sources underscores the significance of groundwater as an alternative water source, and reliance on groundwater from wells and boreholes poses health risks due to potential contamination, compounded by limited treatment and monitoring. Additionally, Groundwater exploitation has become a global issue with the increased exploitation leading to poor water quality (Gregory et al 2013; Gorelick and Zheng 2015). This groundwater depletion is noted mostly in developing countries. There is therefore a need for government regulations and policies to safeguard the use of groundwater by communities in Mozambique to avoid overexploitation of the resource. An efficient and integrated approach has to be implemented for sustainable water use and allocation limits (Saleem et al., 2021; Aeschbach-Hertig and Gleeson 2012). Monitoring of groundwater users however can prove to be impractical and expensive, especially in the developing countries. it is however worth trying to implement policies that the water users will be forced to adhere to with penalties coming into effect where there is failure to adhere to the regulations (Castilla-Rho et al., 2019). Artificial groundwater recharging can be implemented to increase aquifer recharge. Urban developers and planners together with the policy makers can also promote Artificial recharge at a smaller scales, such as in households to re-infiltrate collected rainwater (Jakeman et al., 2016).

The findings from the assessment of water management in Chimoio reveal a complex scenario characterized by both challenges and opportunities. The city heavily relies on the Chicamba dam as a primary water source, supplying water not only to Chimoio but also to neighbouring areas. However, despite efforts to treat and distribute water through a rapid sand filtration system, challenges such as interruptions in water supply, water stress, and dissatisfaction with water quality persist. Interruptions in water supply, lasting more than 24 hours, indicate infrastructural challenges or a demand-supply gap. A considerable portion of the population experiences extreme effects due to water unavailability, highlighting the urgent need for interventions to ensure reliable access to water. These interventions could include alternative sources of water for example, collected storm water and recycled waters. Chimoio’s water supply heavily relies on precipitation thus making it vulnerable to climate variability and changes which makes it important for the city to collect, treat, and recycle wastewater which can be used as an alternative source as many places around the world are treating wastewater for potable use. Stormwater harvesting is however not popular in Chimoio and the municipality mentioned that stormwater harvesting is still a project under study and yet to be implemented. The treated stormwater can also be used to artificially recharge aquifers. The results also show that there is very little wastewater collection and treatment in Chimoio. The issue of wastewater collection and treatment is still difficult since a large part of the population use non-flushing toilets and those with flushing toilets are not connected to the city’s sewage collection system but they use personal septic tanks that are emptied when they reach their maximum capacity. Development of a sewage collection system that covers a greater part of the city would go a long way in helping the city improve sanitation and manage wastewater collection and treatment. There is a need for the upgrade of the existing wastewater treatment plant which is said to be not fully functioning.

Assessing Chimoio's water supply against the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) ladder reveals limitations in achieving the "Safely Managed" level, primarily due to irregular water supply and potential quality concerns. Collaboration between AdRC, the municipality, and the local government in addressing water supply issues is evident, but challenges such as demand exceeding supply, infrastructure issues, and inadequate mapping of water problem areas persist.

Further, the economic value of water in Chimoio is hindered by challenges such as pipe breakages, vandalization, water theft, and lack of resources for infrastructure maintenance. Non-revenue water (NRW) is relatively high, which implies inefficiencies in the water distribution system and financial losses for the city.

Regarding water quality, while efforts are made to adhere to regulated standards through treatment processes, consumer perceptions reveal dissatisfaction, particularly concerning taste, odour, and turbidity. The risk of contamination during distribution underscores the importance of continuous monitoring and maintenance of the water distribution network.

Efforts towards integrated water resource management (IWRM) in Chimoio are fragmented, with minimal focus on sustainability and stakeholder involvement. The city however has potential of implementing an IWRM looking at the fact that the legal framework for IWRM exists at the national level. It is however its implementation at the local level that remains inadequate. Wastewater treatment and recycling, rainwater harvesting, and leakage control are underdeveloped, further exacerbating water scarcity and quality issues. Moreover, limited stakeholder engagement, particularly with the community and women, hinders effective governance and decision-making in water management. Stakeholder engagement enhances the understanding of resource demands, integrates, and publishes scientific information used by managers. It also promotes mutual understanding and learning between users, managers, and policy makers in different areas like that of agriculture, water supply, energy, etc (Jakeman et al., 2016).

This study however failed to get adequate information concerning the state of the wastewater treatment plant and the amount of wastewater that is treated in the plant, if any. There is therefore a need for a future study focusing on sanitation and wastewater collection and treatment. Also, further research is needed to determine water management within the Chicamba Dam where water is used for various economic purposes that include hydro electricity production (Tsoca 2023), fishing, agriculture, and potable water supply.

Indeed Chimoio has a potential to adopt an IWRM system as the ground for its implementation has been set nationally by the implementation of policies. There is understanding of some of the components of IWRM, for example the participation of women and stakeholders in water management. There is noticeable participation of stakeholders, and the population is knowledgeable of importance of water conservation. There are however many challenges in the implementation of IWRM in Chimoio as mentioned above due to limited participation of communities, limited stormwater harvesting and wastewater treatment and reuse.

6.2 Limitations

The limitations of this study include the fact that data was collected mostly from the people with access to the internet since the questionnaire was send electronically. This means that the population covered is mostly the educated, employed and those who are financially able to some extent. This somehow excluded the lesser privileged part of the population with no access to the internet or those who are illiterate. This may therefore impact the generalizability of the findings. The study also failed to get the participation of the Non-Governmental Organisation to get the level of their involvement in water management in Chimoio. Further, due to resource constraints and the complexity of the subject matter, this research may not comprehensively address all aspects of water management in Chimoio.

6.3 Recommendations

From the results obtained in this study, the following recommendations are given to Chimoio for the city to achieve some level of Integrated water resource management and thus increase its water availability and supply:

By implementing these recommendations, Chimoio can address its water management challenges, enhance resilience to climate change, and ensure sustainable access to safe and reliable water for its residents. Collaborative efforts, informed decision-making, and proactive measures are vital in achieving long-term water security and supporting the city's socio-economic development aspirations. It can also advance towards achieving the Sustainable Development Goals related to water and sanitation.

1. Infrastructure Maintenance and Expansion: Prioritize investment in infrastructure maintenance and expansion to address issues such as pipe breakages, leakages, and water loss. Improvement in repair strategies will minimize non-revenue water and ensure continuous service delivery.

2. Demand Management: Implement measures for demand management, such as water conservation initiatives and public awareness campaigns, to alleviate pressure on the existing water supply infrastructure.

3. Water Quality Monitoring: there is a need for an improved water quality monitoring and surveillance systems to ensure compliance with regulated standards throughout the distribution network. Regular testing for physical, biological, and chemical parameters should be conducted to address consumer concerns and mitigate health risks.

4. Collaborative Governance: Enhance collaboration between AdRC, the municipality, and the local government to develop comprehensive strategies for sustainable water management. This includes budget allocation for infrastructure upgrades, capacity building, and public-private partnerships to improve service delivery.

5. Innovation and Research: Invest in innovative technologies and research to optimize water treatment processes, reduce operational costs, and enhance the resilience of the water supply system to climate change and extreme weather events.

6. Community Engagement: Foster community participation and engagement in water management processes, including the promotion of rainwater harvesting, efficient water use practices, and the reporting of infrastructure issues.

7. Financial Sustainability: Explore alternative financing mechanisms, such as tariff adjustments or public-private partnerships, to ensure financial sustainability for infrastructure maintenance and service expansion.

8. Strengthen IWRM Implementation: Chimoio should prioritize the adoption of integrated water resource management practices, aligning with national policies. This includes establishing mechanisms for sustainable water use, monitoring, and stakeholder engagement. The city should develop a comprehensive IWRM plan tailored to its unique challenges and opportunities.

9. Invest in Infrastructure and Technology: Adequate investment in water infrastructure, including wastewater treatment plants, rainwater harvesting systems, and leakage detection technologies, is essential. Upgrading existing facilities and adopting innovative water treatment methods can enhance water quality and conservation efforts.

10. Enhance Stakeholder Participation: Promote an inclusive decision-making processes by engaging diverse stakeholders, including the community, women, NGOs, and private sector entities for transparency, accountability.

11. Promote Gender Equity: Empower women to actively participate in water governance and management roles. Encourage their involvement in decision-making processes, capacity building initiatives, and community-led water projects. Recognize and address gender disparities in access to and control over water resources.

12. Monitor and Evaluate Progress: Establish robust monitoring and evaluation mechanisms to track the implementation of water management initiatives especial for groundwater, assess impact, and identify areas for improvement. Regularly review policies, practices, and resource allocation to ensure alignment with sustainability goals and evolving water challenges.

Funding

and Resource Allocation:

Author Contribution

S.T wrote this article

Acknowledgement

Wesley Tatenda Matsapa, Joao Fernando Mocambique and Felicidade Arminda Coutinho

Data Availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request

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The viability of an Integrated Water Resource Management(IWRM) approach to alleviate potable water shortages, the case of Chimoio, Mozambique

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Abstract

Figures

1 Introduction

1.1 Study Area

2 Literature Review

3 Methodology

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Population and Sample Selection

3.3 Ethical Considerations

4 Data Presentation and Interpretation

4.2 Availability of Water in Chimoio

82.9% have experienced leaks or damages, 14.3% have not, and 2.9% are unsure.

4.2 Qualitative Data Analysis

5 Data Interpretation

5.1 Urban Water Supply and Availability

5.2 Economic Value of Water

5.3 Water Quality

5.4 Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and Challenges

5.4.1 Wastewater Treatment and Recycling

5.4.2 Rainwater Harvesting (RWH)

5.5 Non-Revenue Water (NRW)

5.6 Involvement of Stakeholders and Women in Water Management

6 Conclusion

6.2 Limitations

Declarations

Funding

Author Contribution

Acknowledgement

Data Availability

References

Additional Declarations

Supplementary Files

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