Optimizing Concrete Sustainability: Impact of Bagasse Ash and Stone Dust on Mechanical Properties and Durability

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5008107/v1

Download PDF

Article

Optimizing Concrete Sustainability: Impact of Bagasse Ash and Stone Dust on Mechanical Properties and Durability

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5008107/v1

This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License

You are reading this latest preprint version

Effectively managing and reducing industrial and municipal waste is crucial for addressing environmental issues like pollution and resource depletion. Since cement production is a major contributor to greenhouse gases, using eco-friendly building materials becomes essential in the fight against global warming and for a more sustainable future. This research proposes an innovative approach to concrete technology by concurrently exploring the use of SCBA and SD as partial replacements for cement and sand at varying ratios in eco-strength concrete mixes for 28 and 34 MPa. This combination of materials will help to evaluate the economic and environmental benefits of using these alternative materials, such as reduced reliance on traditional cement and sand resources, potential cost savings, and the mitigation of environmental impacts through waste utilization. The influence of BA and SD on workability, mechanical properties, and durability were experimentally investigated. The introduction of 9% SCBA as a substitute for cement and 40-50% SD as a replacement for sand leads to a substantial enhancement in both compressive and tensile strength. This improvement is attributed to factors such as pozzolanic reactions, enhanced particle packing, and optimal curing conditions. Additionally, a notable increase in flexural strength is observed with 6% cement replacement using SCBA and 40% sand replacement with SD. However, it is observed that as the ratios of SCBA and SD increase, there is a concurrent rise in water absorption. The findings reveal that the optimized mix, derived from response surface analysis, closely aligns with the control mix in terms of mechanical strengths, emphasizing its appropriateness for structural applications.

Physical sciences/Engineering

Physical sciences/Engineering/Civil engineering

Concrete Mechanical Properties

Sustainable Material

Sugarcane bagasse ash

Stone dust

Pozzolanic activity

Durability

Workability

The construction industry is a major contributor to environmental degradation, as major cement-producing countries collectively produced approximately 4.1 billion tonnes of cement in the year 2022 [1], being a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions [2-7]. Global warming poses a significant threat to human civilization, demanding a sustainable and environmentally responsible development strategy [8, 9]. Additionally, the mining of natural sand for concrete production has led to the depletion of valuable natural resources and environmental disruption. Finding sustainable alternatives to conventional concrete components is crucial to mitigate these issues. One promising avenue is the replacement of cement and sand with sustainable and environmentally friendly materials in specific proportions, which not only addresses environmental concerns but also has the potential to enhance the properties of concrete [4, 10-17].

Sugarcane bagasse currently serves as a biofuel in paper and sugar manufacturing. Typically, for every 10 tons of sugar cane crushed in a mill, about 3 tons of bagasse is produced and recycled as fuel [18]. Sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA) contains significant amounts of Silica, Alumina, and Ferric Oxide, making it suitable as a mineral admixture [19-22]. Bagasse, a fibrous byproduct of the sugar refining process, is abundantly available and cost-effective [23]. Extensive studies have been conducted on SCBA, focusing on its viability as a supplementary cementitious material and its impact on the hardened properties of Portland cement concrete in the last few years [18]. Most studies suggest substituting up to 25 % of cement with SCBA, increasing compressive strength by up to 15 % [24, 25]. Tensile strength also improves with up to 10 % cement replacement [26]. After conducting a comprehensive comparative analysis of the chemical composition of SCBA, it has been observed that SCBA is rich in amorphous silica and reactive alumina, both of which are crucial components in cementitious materials that exhibit promising potential as a partial replacement for cement in concrete formulations [27-30]. However, there is significant potential to utilize the resulting bagasse ash as a partial cement replacement in construction [18]. These findings suggest that SCBA possesses pozzolanic properties that can contribute to the development of strength and durability in concrete.

Annually, the global mining of materials reaches approximately 47.0 to 59.0 billion tons, with construction aggregates (gravel and sand) accounting for the largest portion, ranging from 68 % to 85 %. The demand for aggregates is four times that of cement [31]. To decrease the use of fine aggregate, one approach is to partially replace it with finer materials. Following a comprehensive comparative analysis of the chemical composition of stone dust (SD), it has become evident that SD holds potential as a viable alternative to traditional sand in concrete production [32]. The chemical composition of SD typically comprises minerals and compounds that are similar to those found in natural sand. These constituents include silicates, quartz, and various mineral particles, which are essential components for providing the necessary bonding and structural properties in concrete [13-17, 33, 34]. Studies suggest that up to 20 % cement replacement with SD increases compressive strength linearly, but the effect diminishes at 30 % replacement [35]. Other research has shown excellent workability in different concrete grades with various water-stone dust ratios, but compressive strength decreases as the SD replacement level increases [36]. Some studies have found that 100 % SD replacement yields maximum compressive strengths, aiding in the conservation of natural sand sources and waste disposal concerns [37]. Partial replacement of fine aggregate with SD up to 40 % enhances strength, but beyond this level, the trend decreases [38-40]. The maximum strength retention was achieved at a 25 % replacement level [41]. Varying results have been observed regarding the impact of SD replacement on compressive strength, with some studies reporting improvements at 15 % replacement [42] and others at 0–15 % replacement [43]. Additionally, SD has been found to significantly increase tensile strength in concrete [44]. Some researchers observed rising strength trends with SD augmentation, with 15 % river sand replacement yielding the best results [45]. Utilizing SD not only brings economic benefits but also contributes to environmental improvement [46, 47]. Proper management of fine by-products is crucial to avoid potential environmental issues, as their widespread dispersion can lead to water, air, and soil pollution, posing risks to human health [48-50]. However, effectively utilizing SD in large quantities for infrastructural purposes could lead to cost-effective and environmental benefits for the quarrying sector. Apart from economic profits through reduced landfilling and dumping costs, this approach could extend the life of the original rock source [48].

This research proposes an innovative approach in concrete technology by concurrently exploring the use of SCBA and SD as partial replacements for cement and sand at varying ratios in tailored eco-strength (ES) concrete mixes for 28 and 34 MPa strength needs. This combination of materials addresses a significant gap in sustainable construction, which will help to evaluate the economic and environmental benefits of using these alternative materials, such as reduced reliance on traditional cement and sand resources, potential cost savings, and the mitigation of environmental impacts through waste utilization. The primary objectives of this study include determining the optimal proportions of SCBA and SD that can be incorporated into the concrete mix without compromising its performance. By meticulously examining the effects of these replacements on workability, compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, and other key properties.

In this study, the workability of fresh concrete and the mechanical properties of hardened concrete, including compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, and water absorption were tested according to ASTM standards. Totally 390 recipes were prepared, considering various replacement ratios of cement by SCBA and sand by SD.

2.1 Materials

In this study, two distinct concrete formulations of different water-to-cement (w/c) ratios were taken as the benchmark mixtures and designated according to their compressive strengths as Eco-strength 28 MPa (ES-28) and Eco-strength 34 MPa (ES-34) concrete. The ES-28 mixture consisted of one part of cement, one and a half parts of fine aggregates, and three parts of coarse aggregates, and the w/c ratio was 0.57. While, the ES-34 mixture consisted of one-part cement, one-part fine aggregate, and two parts coarse aggregate, and the w/c ratio was 0.45. This research focuses on conventional concrete, which is integral to Pakistan's construction practices, aligning with regional industrial norms, environmental resilience, and cost-effectiveness. Conventional concrete plays a significant role in the nation's infrastructural growth, utilizing domestically sourced materials for eco-friendly progress. Its adaptable nature is ideal for the rapid urban growth in Pakistan. Building regulations and academic insights in Pakistan further validate the use of conventional concrete, ensuring that the research is technically sound and tailored to advance the country's construction ambitions.

The base materials used to develop the ES-28 and ES-34 concrete formulations include cement, fine, and coarse aggregates. These elements were selected and combined with precision to achieve the required mechanical strengths. The selection of these basic materials demonstrates a focus on eco-friendliness and advancement in green building practices. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) complying with ASTM C150/C150M-22 Type I standards [51] was used. Essential properties of the cement were evaluated, including initial and final setting times, specific gravity, consistency, and fineness. The analysis showed that the cement has an initial setting time of 40 minutes, a final setting time of 285 minutes, a specific gravity of 2.80, a consistency measure of 32%, and a fineness level of 4.5%. The sand was used as a fine aggregate, graded between 4.75mm (No.4) sieve and 150 µm (No.100) sieve. The sieve analysis of the sand was conducted following ASTM C136/C136M-19 standards [52], and the results were compared with the specifications of ASTM C33/C33M-18 [53]. The particle size distribution of sand falls within the limits specified by the ASTM standards as shown in Fig. 1 and the obtained fineness modulus was 2.46. Similarly, the specific gravity of the sand was also determined following ASTM C 128 – 22 and was recorded as 2.69. [54]. The coarse aggregates used were of consistent size, with a maximum dimension of 19 mm (3/4 inch). Sieve analysis was conducted on the coarse aggregates following ASTM C136/C136M-19 guidelines [55] and the results were compared with the grading requirements of ASTM C33/C33M-18 standards [53]. It was determined that the coarse aggregate used in the study complied with the specifications of ASTM standards. The result revealed that particle size distribution of coarse aggregate falls within the limits specified by the ASTM standards as shown in Fig. 2. The specific gravity of the aggregate was determined to be 2.76, while the absorption percentage was found to be 0.43 % following ASTM C127-15 [56]. Additionally, the Impact Value Test and Crushing Value Test were conducted on the coarse aggregate according to BS 812:110 and were recorded as 16.15 % and 28.65 % respectively.

To enhance sustainability within the construction industry, there's been a notable shift towards utilizing alternative materials such as SCBA and SD. These by-products have emerged as promising substitutes for cement and sand, respectively. SCBA, a residue from sugar production, is being tapped for its pozzolanic properties that can contribute to the strength and durability of concrete when used as a partial replacement for cement. Similarly, SD, a by-product of stone crushing, is gaining traction as a sand substitute due to its comparable physical characteristics and its ability to improve the concrete's structural integrity. In this research, a professional and deliberate approach was adopted in the selection of materials, choosing to utilize SCBA as a replacement for cement and SD as a substitute for sand. Optimizing SCBA's pozzolanic effectiveness involves a focus on finer particles, typically below 45 microns, as they enhance dispersion and interaction with cementitious materials, leading to improved microstructure and densification. The ash was left to air-dry for a brief duration, usually spanning a few hours or overnight. To ensure a finer particle size, the dried ash was then sieved through a No. 200 sieve to remove any coarse particles (Fig. 3) which yielded a fineness value of 35.2 microns, aligning with the desired finer particle range. SD was subjected to a series of tests similar to those for sand. It was graded between 4.75mm (No.4) sieve to 150 µm (No.100) sieve as shown in Fig. 4. Sieve analysis showed that the SD's properties were in line with the required norms. The fineness modulus of SD was determined to be 3.28, which suggests it is suitable as a fine aggregate. This value indicates reduced surface area and improved particle packing in concrete, making it appropriate for use in various concrete mix proportions. The particle size distribution of the SD was within the acceptable limits, as shown in Fig. 1. Additionally, the specific gravity of SD was found to be 2.92, which is comparable to that of sand. The incorporation of these waste materials not only helps in reducing the environmental footprint but also addresses the issue of industrial waste management, presenting a dual benefit for both the construction sector and environmental conservation.

For each benchmark mixture, the cement was partially replaced by SCBA, and the fine aggregate was partially replaced by SD with different ratios, forming 390 kinds of tested recipes. Cement replacement ratios included 3 %, 6 %, and 9 % with SCBA, while fine aggregate replacement involved SD in ratios of 20 %, 30 %, 40 %, and 50 %. For the representation of these recipes, the sample codes contain both numerical values as well as a code. The numerical values and codes correspond to specific proportions and constituents used in the concrete mixtures, i.e. "3BA," "6BA," and "9BA" represent concrete mixtures containing 3 %, 6 %, and 9 % Bagasse Ash, respectively and "20SD," "30SD," "40SD," and "50SD" denote concrete mixtures with 20 %, 30 %, 40 %, and 50 % Stone Dust content, respectively.

2.2 Test setup

To determine the impact of SCBA and SD as replacement materials in normal-strength concrete, the cubic compressive test on 156 groups of samples, the split tensile test on 78 groups of samples, the three-point bending test on 78 groups of samples, and the related slump test and water absorption test were conducted.

2.2.1 Tests on fresh concrete

Slump tests and compaction factor tests were conducted to investigate the workability of fresh concrete.

2.2.1.1 Slump test

The slump test was conducted following ASTM C143/C143M-20 [57] guidelines. The targeted slump (50-100 mm) was successfully attained by making minor modifications to the concrete mixture, as depicted in Fig. 5.

2.2.1.2 Compaction factor test

Similarly, as per IS 1199-1959 [58], the compaction factor test (Fig. 6) was conducted on a fresh sample of concrete to ensure that the concrete mix has the desired compaction factor (0.95 to 0.97) and to identify any potential issues with the mix's consistency and compatibility.

2.2.2 Tests on hardened concrete

Compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural test, and water absorption test were conducted to investigate the mechanical properties as well as the durability of hardened concrete.

2.2.2.1 Manufacture of specimens

To determine the effect of using SCBA and SD as replacement materials in conventional concrete, a total of five groups, each consisting of three samples were prepared. These groups were designated for specific tests: two groups for compressive strength (at 7 and 28 days), one group for split tensile strength (at 28 days), one group for flexural strength (at 28 days), and one group for water absorption (at 28 days). In total, 156 samples were created for compressive strength tests, and 78 samples were designated for split tensile strength, flexural strength, and water absorption tests, respectively. During the casting of various samples, strict adherence to ASTM standards was maintained. Proper curing procedures were diligently carried out to accurately assess the concrete's performance with partial replacement of essential concrete ingredients. Standard specimens were prepared, which included cylinders measuring 6 inches (0.1524 meters) in diameter and 12 inches (0.3048 meters) in height, cubes with sides of 6 inches (0.1524 meters) in length, and prisms featuring dimensions of 4 inches (0.1016 meters) in width, 4 inches (0.1016 meters) in height, and 12 inches (0.3048 meters) in length. These specimens underwent a 28-day curing period, during which the concrete was carefully cured in a controlled environment at approximately 20 °C with a humidity level of 90% within a curing tank.

2.2.2.2 Test setup

According to ASTM: C873-94/C39-96 [59], a concrete cylinder was tested for concrete compressive strength at a loading rate of 0.2 MPa/s at the age of 7 and 28 days as shown in Fig. 7. To uncover valuable data that will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of the material's properties and its behavior under various conditions, ultimately enhancing the quality and durability of concrete structures, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) analysis was performed on both the standard mix and the samples that showed the highest increase in compressive strength. Whereas, for split tensile strength concrete samples were moist cured for 28 days and tested (Fig. 8) in a saturated surface dry condition following the standard ASTM C496/C496M-17 [60].

Following the ASTM standards C78/C78M-22 [61], flexural tests were conducted on a prism sample, subjected to third-point loading to induce flexural stresses in the 4” deep section of the beam as shown in Fig. 9. The test results were based on the maximum load recorded on the dial. All the samples exhibited collapse in the middle third portion of the span, eliminating the need for any modification factor in the test results. Also, a water absorption test was conducted using ASTM specification C642 – 13 [62]. Standard cubes were cast for each mix. After 28 days of moist curing, test specimens were retrieved from the curing tank. Subsequently, the cured samples were subjected to a water absorption test as shown in Fig. 10.

3.1 Workability of fresh concrete

3.1.1 Slump test

Fig. 11 shows a comprehensive analysis of the slump values observed in various concrete mixtures. Mixtures with lower w/c ratios exhibit reduced slumps, indicating greater stiffness and lower workability, while mixtures with higher w/c ratios demonstrate higher slump values, signifying increased fluidity and improved workability. The data suggests that the inclusion of both Bagasse Ash (BA) and SD can indeed impact the workability of concrete mixtures designed for 28 and 34 MPa strength. As the proportion of BA increases while keeping the SD content constant, the slump values exhibit a subtle declining trend. Similarly, when the SD content increases while maintaining consistent BA content, the slump values also display a gradual reduction. As the variation in slump values is very low in millimeters, it might have minimal impact on the performance of concrete, especially in situations where slight differences in workability are acceptable or can be compensated during construction.

3.1.2 Compaction factor test

Fig. 12 provides a detailed analysis of the compaction factor values observed in various concrete mixtures. The accompanying graph illustrates the compaction factor, which serves as a measure of the workability and ease of compaction for each mixture. A lower compaction factor indicates a more workable and easily compacted concrete, while a higher compaction factor suggests a stiffer, less workable mixture. It also indicates that both the proportions of BA and SD have minimal effects on the compaction factor of concrete mixtures designed for strengths of 28 and 34 MPa. An increase in the BA proportion, while maintaining a constant SD content, results in a subtle variation in the compaction factor values. Similarly, altering the SD percentages while keeping the BA percentage constant tends to result in slightly reduced compaction factor values. Generally, slight reductions in compaction values are unlikely to immediately result in significant issues.

3.2 Mechanical properties and durability of hardened concrete

Based on the data obtained through the concrete compressive strength test, split tensile strength test, and flexural strength test of different samples, concrete mechanical properties were analyzed.

3.2.1 Concrete compressive strength

Fig. 13 presents the compressive strength values for concrete mixtures designed for 28 MPa strength at both 7-day and 28-day curing periods. These values are influenced by varying proportions of BA and SD. At 7 days, the compressive strength values vary across the different mixtures. Generally, the mixtures containing higher proportions of BA tend to exhibit slightly lower compressive strength values at this early age compared to the control mix (0BA:0SD). At 28 days, the compressive strength values for most mixtures have increased significantly compared to the 7-day values.

In Fig. 14 compressive strength values for concrete mixtures designed for 34 MPa strength at both 7 days and 28 days curing periods are presented. At 7 days, the compressive strength values vary across the different mixtures. Generally, the mixtures containing higher proportions of BA tend to exhibit slightly lower compressive strength values at this early age compared to the control mix (0BA:0SD). The 28-day compressive strength data reveals an interesting trend when considering different replacement proportions of BA and SD in comparison to the control mix. Across the board, the mixtures with various replacement proportions of BA and SD tend to show an overall increase in compressive strength at 28 days compared to the control mix.

3.2.2 Concrete split tensile strength

Fig. 15 illustrates the split tensile strength values for concrete mixtures with varying proportions of both BA and SD. These mixtures were formulated to achieve target strengths of 28 MPa and 34 MPa and were subjected to a curing period of 28 days. Comparing the 20 % SD mixes with different percentages of BA in the 28 MPa mix, it's evident that the presence of BA, regardless of the percentage, tends to reduce the split tensile strength compared to the control mix. The effect of SD is more variable, with potential improvements in split tensile strength observed at higher percentages (30 % and 40 %), and in the case of the 34 MPa mix, it seems that the presence of SD, especially at higher percentages, can mitigate the reduction in split tensile strength caused by higher percentages of BA.

3.2.3 Concrete flexural strength

Fig. 16 depicts the flexural strength values for concrete mixtures with varying proportions of both BA and SD, formulated for strengths of 28 MPa and 34 MPa, and subjected to a curing period of 28 days. The presence of SD, especially at higher percentages, appears to mitigate the potential reduction in flexural strength caused by BA concerning the 28 MPa control mix. The data suggests that mixes with 6 % or 9 % BA and 30 % or higher SD (e.g., 6BA:30SD, 9BA:30SD, 6BA:40SD, 9BA:40SD, 6BA:50SD, 9BA:50SD) tend to have higher flexural strengths compared to the control mix and in 34 MPa mix the data suggests that mixes with 9 % BA and 30 % or higher SD (e.g., 9BA:30SD, 9BA:40SD, 9BA:50SD) tend to have significantly higher flexural strengths compared to the control mix.

3.2.4 Concrete water absorption for durability

Fig. 17 provides a visual representation of water absorption values, which indicate the extent to which each concrete mixture is susceptible to absorbing water. The presence of both BA and SD in Mix-28 and Mix-34 seems to contribute to increased water absorption in the concrete, with the effect being more noticeable when both materials are present in the mix. As the amount of BA and SD is increased in the sample mixes, the water absorption value increases accordingly.

4.1 Influence of SCBA and SD on properties of concrete

4.1.1 Influence on compressive strength

The compressive strength of ES-28 mixes with varying levels of SD and BA content at 28 days is presented in Fig. 18 (a). The results show that with 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, as the SD content varies from 20% to 40%, the compressive strength exhibits a consistent upward trend, ultimately reaching 27.54 MPa, 27.77 MPa, and 27.93 MPa, respectively, which closely align with the compressive strength of the control mix at 27.58 MPa. This occurs because BA serves as a supplementary cementitious material, contributing to gradual strength improvement through pozzolanic reactions. These reactions become more significant over time, with their impact being more apparent at 28 days compared to 7 days. The marginal strength reduction of 28 MPa concrete at earlier ages due to higher BA content might result from factors like delayed hydration and potential alterations in water-cementitious material ratios, attributed to the finer particle size of BA. On the other hand, SD affects concrete's density, impacting strength development. The strength reduction observed with increased SD content could be due to heightened porosity and changes in particle packing, influencing strength formation. Notably, the combination of 9% BA and 40% SD yields the highest strength enhancement (1.26%). This enhancement can be attributed to the cumulative effects of both BA and SD after 28 days in comparison to the control mix. The higher BA content may contribute to increased pozzolanic reactions and further strength development over the 28-day curing period. However, with a further increase in SD content to 50%, there is a subsequent decrease in compressive strength.

Similarly, the compressive strength of ES-34 mixes with varying levels of SD and BA content at 28 days is presented in Fig. 18 (b). The findings indicate that, with 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, as the SD content fluctuates from 20% to 50%, there is a consistent upward trajectory in compressive strength. Ultimately, this leads to values of 35.77 MPa, 37.34 MPa, and 38.11 MPa, respectively, signifying increases of 4.29%, 8.31%, and 10.16% compared to the compressive strength of the control mix at 34.24 MPa. The increase in strength can be attributed to the relatively high silica content in SCBA, which chemically reacted with calcium hydroxide and water, resulting in the formation of a strong C–S–H gel. This finding aligns with the research of Fairbairn et al. [63]. Previous studies have also noted a common trend: the strength tends to decrease in the early curing stages but improves as the curing duration increases. This pattern is likely due to the delayed pozzolanic activity of SCBA [64, 65]. This trend underscores the importance of thoughtful mix design and the potential benefits of leveraging supplementary materials to achieve desirable concrete strength outcomes.

4.1.2 Influence on split tensile strength

The split tensile strength of ES-28 mixes with varying levels of SD and BA content at 28 days is presented in Fig. 19 (a). The results demonstrate that, with 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, the split tensile strength consistently increases as the SD content varies from 20% to 40%. This ultimately leads to values of 2.74 MPa, 2.77 MPa, and 2.79 MPa, respectively, which closely match the split tensile strength of the control mix at 2.74 MPa. However, as the SD content is further increased to 50%, there is a subsequent reduction in split tensile strength. Nonetheless, these values still align with those of the control mix. Mixes with 6 % or 9 % BA and 30 % or higher SD could potentially result in split tensile strengths equal to or higher than the control mix. It's possible that higher percentages of SD in certain cases could improve tensile strength by filling voids or enhancing the interlocking effect. This possibility aligns with the findings of Balamurugan et al. [66].

Similarly, the split tensile strength of ES-34 mixes with varying levels of SD and BA content at 28 days is presented in Fig. 19 (b). The findings indicate that, with 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, as the SD content fluctuates from 20% to 50%, there is a consistent upward trajectory in split tensile strength. Ultimately, this leads to values of 3.57 MPa, 3.74 MPa, and 3.84 MPa, respectively. These figures signify increases of 5.07%, 9.43%, and 11.63% when compared to the split tensile strength of the control mix, which stands at 3.39 MPa. The observed increases in split tensile strength could be attributed to a synergy between the pozzolanic effect of BA and the improved particle packing resulting from SD. When combined, these factors lead to an overall enhancement in the concrete's performance. The pozzolanic reactions initiated by BA contribute to the development of additional cementitious compounds within the concrete matrix, effectively binding the particles together. Simultaneously, the improved packing and densification of the mixture, facilitated by SD, further enhance the concrete's structural integrity. Achieving the observed increases in split tensile strength likely requires careful mix design, where the proportions of BA and SD are balanced to harness their beneficial effects. The optimal mix design may vary depending on factors such as the specific properties of the BA and SD, the cementitious materials used, and the project's requirements.

4.1.3 Influence on flexural strength

Fig. 20 (a) illustrates the 28-day flexure strength of ES-28 mixes, showcasing the impact of varying SD and BA content. The results demonstrate that, with 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, the flexure strength consistently increases as the SD content varies from 20% to 40%. This ultimately results in values of 5.76 MPa, 6.80 MPa, and 7.05 MPa, respectively. These figures indicate an increase in flexural strength up to 0.26%, 15.46%, and 18.39%, respectively when compared to the flexural strength of the control mix at 5.75 MPa. However, with a further increase in SD content to 50%, there is a subsequent reduction in flexural strength. The same phenomenon was observed in ES-34 mixes, as depicted in Fig. 20 (b). It showcased an increase in flexural strength of up to 0.17%, 6.29%, and 8.92% for 3%, 6%, and 9% BA replacements, respectively, in comparison to the flexural strength of the control mix at 7.65 MPa. The test data suggests that the presence of SD, particularly at higher percentages, appears to counteract the reduction in flexural strength caused by the inclusion of BA. This suggests that the combination of these two materials can produce concrete mixes that are at least as strong as the control mix, which is a promising outcome for sustainable construction practices.

The w/c ratios have a significant influence on the mechanical properties of concrete. A well-chosen w/c ratio can optimize the reaction between cementitious materials (cement and BA) and water, forming a stronger matrix. It also affects the workability of the mix, which is crucial for proper compaction and curing. If the mix is too dry (too low w/c ratio), it may not be workable enough, leading to poor compaction and thus lower strength. Conversely, if the mix is too wet (too high w/c ratio), it may lead to segregation and excessive shrinkage upon drying, also reducing strength.

A lower w/c ratio in ES-34 generally makes concrete stronger because it leads to a denser matrix and fewer pores within the hardened cement paste, which means that there are fewer weak points in the structure. The finer particles of SD fill the voids more effectively, leading to a denser and more cohesive matrix that can withstand compressive and tensile stresses better. BA, containing silica, can react with calcium hydroxide released during cement hydration to form an additional calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), the primary compound responsible for strength in concrete. As the percentage of BA increases, the trend of increasing compressive and split tensile strength with SD content is maintained, suggesting that BA, up to a point, is also contributing positively to the compressive strength, potentially due to its pozzolanic properties which can enhance the microstructure of the hardened concrete. Unlike compressive and tensile strengths, a decrease in flexural strength was observed with a 50% replacement of sand with SD, as flexural strength is a measure of the material's ability to resist deformation under load. The decrease in flexural strength suggests that while the internal cohesion of the material is improved (as indicated by increased compressive and tensile strengths), the material's ability to distribute stress across the composite is compromised. This might occur because the flexural strength is more sensitive to the bond between the aggregates and the cement paste. SD, despite its positive effects on void filling and possibly initial inter-particle strength, might not bond as effectively with the cement paste in bending. The different trends in these strength measures can also be due to the angularity and surface texture of SD particles, which may lead to an improved mechanical interlock for compression and tension, but create stress concentrations under bending loads that promote crack initiation and propagation. Moreover, at 50% replacement, there might be a threshold beyond which the benefits of finer SD particles and pozzolanic reaction of BA are overshadowed by the negative effects on the concrete’s flexural performance, like altered aggregate-paste bond strength and the effectiveness of the SD particles in the matrix.

Similarly, In ES-28 a higher w/c ratio is used, which would generally reduce strength. However, up to the optimal point of SD content, the mix may still be workable and cohesive enough to achieve good compaction and strength. Past the optimal point, the excess SD might be making the mix too stiff or causing segregation, resulting in weaker concrete. The peak and subsequent decrease in compressive, split tensile, and flexural strength with higher SD content could also be due to the dilution of the cement paste, as more SD means less cementitious binder relative to aggregates, leading to a less effective paste that binds aggregates together.

4.1.4 Influence on water absorption

Fig. 21 illustrates the 28-day water absorption of ES-28 and ES-34 mixes, respectively, showcasing the impact of varying SD and BA content. The results indicate that the inclusion of both BA and SD in Mix-28 and Mix-34 leads to an increase in water absorption within the concrete. This is due to the effect of BA in the mixes when used in higher percentages, may introduce porosity and affect the binding properties of the concrete, leading to increased water absorption and enhanced durability. Similarly, SD especially at higher percentages, can also increase the porosity of the concrete, which in turn leads to higher water absorption. These findings emphasize the importance of selecting the right mix proportions based on project requirements, particularly when aiming to achieve superior water resistance in concrete structures.

Higher water absorption suggests increased porosity within the concrete. The SD particles may not pack as densely as the sand particles they are replacing, potentially due to their size, shape, or surface texture. With a higher w/c ratio, the increased water in the mix also contributes to a higher porosity, as excess water leaves behind more voids when it evaporates from the concrete. The compressive and split tensile strengths improved with the addition of SD and BA. This does not necessarily correlate with a decrease in porosity. The finer particles of SD may fill the spaces between the coarser aggregates, leading to denser packing and a higher compressive strength. However, the increased porosity indicated by higher water absorption rates suggests that these finer particles may not be bonding as effectively with the cement paste, which can negatively impact the durability and flexural strength of the concrete. The BA, despite providing a pozzolanic reaction, does not seem to reduce the porosity sufficiently to counteract the effects of SD on water absorption.

4.2 Microstructure analysis

To study the microstructure of control concrete and concrete mixture which gives higher compressive strength value i.e. 9BA:50SD having w/c ratio of 0.45, the SEM analysis was carried out to provide a close-up view of the microstructure of concrete mixes, which can give us insights into the differences in mechanical strength between the control mix and the mix with cement replaced by 9% BA and sand replaced by 50% SD. The variation in properties of concrete so far studied was validated with the micrographs of SEM. Fig. 22 collectively provides insight into the structural composition of concrete and its implications for strength. Fig. 22 (a) illustrates a large aggregate with a clearly defined contact zone, emphasizing the significance of a well-bonded interface between aggregate and cement paste for enhanced strength. In contrast, Fig. 22 (b) exposes the presence of pores within this contact zone, highlighting their potential to weaken the concrete by serving as initiation points for cracks. Fig. 22 (c) captures hydrated particles in the cement paste, underscoring the importance of hydration level for strength, with more complete hydration correlating to a stronger matrix. Finally, Fig. 22 (d) reveals the presence of calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) and calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel, the latter being the primary contributor to concrete's strength, while the former is a by-product of the hydration process. Together, these figures depict the complex interplay of components and processes that determine the strength of concrete.

It was observed that the micrographs of 9BA:50SD showed better properties as far as the dense matrix is concerned. Fig. 23 (a) presents the aggregate and its contact zone, suggesting a possibly more defined or densely packed area with hydration products compared to the control mix, potentially contributing to increased strength. Fig. 23 (b), showing pores within the contact zone, reveals fewer and smaller pores relative to the control mix, indicative of a denser matrix that could account for heightened strength. In Fig. 23 (c), the presence of hydrated particles alongside pores is observed, with the hydration appearing more complete and the distribution of particles more uniform, factors that are advantageous for strength. Lastly, Fig. 23 (d) displays the calcium-silicate-hydrate (C-S-H) gel and calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂), similar to the control mix, but with a possibly greater presence of C-S-H gel due to the pozzolanic reaction of BA, enhancing the concrete's strength.

The modified mix displays a denser microstructure with more C-S-H gel, which is the strength-giving phase in concrete. BA, as a pozzolan, reacts with the Ca(OH)₂ to form additional C-S-H gel, which fills pores and makes the cement matrix more homogenous and less permeable, hence increasing the compressive strength. Furthermore, the SD particles could be filling the voids between the larger aggregate particles more effectively than the sand, leading to a denser packing and better particle interlock. The reduction in porosity, as evidenced by the lower prevalence of pores and the denser packing of hydrated particles, is likely a significant contributor to the increased compressive strength observed in the modified mix. In addition, the pozzolanic reaction of BA consumes the Ca(OH)₂, which is relatively weak and can be leached out, transforming it into additional C-S-H gel, thereby enhancing the durability and mechanical properties of the concrete.

4.3 Response surface analysis

In this research Design Expert software [67] was used for Response Surface Analysis in which Compressive strength, Tensile strength, Flexural strength, and Water absorption tests (for both mixes) were the factors for which response surface methodology was used for the optimization of any of these parameters keeping other factors constant. For illustration Compressive strength, Tensile strength, Flexural strength, and Water absorption have been taken as response and w/c ratio, % replacement ratio of cement with BA, and sand with SD as factors. The test results were subjected to response surface methodology independently to obtain the best ratios for each property as shown in Fig. 24, Fig. 25, Fig. 26, and Fig. 27. The optimization process aimed to determine the best ratios of BA and SD replacement that would yield the most favorable outcomes in terms of concrete's mechanical properties and durability as indicated by water absorption.

The analysis of the optimized mix compared to the control mix across various parameters—compressive strength, split tensile strength, flexural strength, and water absorption—shows varying degrees of difference. The optimized mix demonstrates values of 34.28 MPa, 3.43 MPa, 7.97 MPa, and 5.45% respectively. The values obtained using response surface methodology are indicated in Table 1 for 34 MPa, which shows the best ratio of replacements of cement with BA and sand with SD for the targeted results of each property. These figures represent differences of 0.12%, 1.18%, 4.18%, and a significant 27.34% in each parameter respectively. Such variations indicate that the optimized mix largely matches the control mix in mechanical strengths, underscoring its suitability for structural use. However, the notable 27.34% increase in water absorption in the optimized mix points to increased porosity or reduced density, which might adversely affect its long-term durability. This increased water absorption, while a drawback, is a consequence of optimizing the mix for mechanical strengths, highlighting a potential compromise in the material's overall performance and durability in structural applications.

Table 1 Optimization Outcomes for Concrete Mix Properties Utilizing Response Surface Analysis

Property	W/C Ratio	Replacement ratio of BA (%)	Replacement Ratio of SD (%)	Value (With Response Surface) (A)	Value (Control Mix) (B)	Percent difference b/w A & B
Compressive Strength (MPa)	0.50	9	50	34.28	34.24	0.12 %
Split tensile Strength (MPa)				3.43	3.39	1.18 %
Flexural Strength (MPa)				7.97	7.65	4.18 %
Water absorption (%)				5.45	4.28	27.34 %

In short, optimizing one property does not necessarily lead to improvements across all properties; trade-offs must be considered. While the mechanical properties show favorable increases, the durability indicated by water absorption is compromised, which could lead to longer-term issues such as increased permeability and potential for damage from freeze-thaw cycles or chemical attacks.

In this research, an innovative approach was introduced to concrete technology, concurrently investigating the incorporation of SCBA and SD as partial substitutes for cement and sand, respectively, at various ratios within eco-strength concrete mixes targeting strengths of 28 and 34 MPa. The experimental investigation delves into the effects of SCBA and SD on workability, mechanical properties, and durability, providing valuable insights into their performance in sustainable concrete formulations. Based on the results of the tests the following conclusions can be drawn:

1. The incorporation of SCBA at a 9% replacement level for cement, and SD at 40% to 50% replacement levels for sand, has been demonstrated to be a viable approach, yielding a notable enhancement in both compressive and tensile strengths for the respective mixes. This improvement in compressive strength, particularly evident at 28 days, can be attributed to a combination of factors including pozzolanic reactions, enhanced particle packing, optimal curing conditions, potential synergistic effects, and the inherent properties of these supplementary cementitious materials.

2. A significant enhancement in flexural strength was observed when 6% of cement was replaced with SCBA and 40% of sand with SD. This finding highlights the efficacy of these replacement proportions in optimizing the flexural performance of the concrete mixes, indicating a promising pathway for concrete technology.

3. By combining SCBA and SD as partial replacements in conventional concrete, we can achieve a sustainable construction practice that addresses resource scarcity, waste management, environmental concerns, and cost-effectiveness.

4. The use of SCBA in concrete significantly enhances its long-term strength by increasing the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) compounds. This enhancement is due to the interaction between the free calcium hydroxide, a byproduct of cement hydration, and the silica present in SCBA. Additionally, SEM analysis confirms that incorporating BA and SD results in a denser and more cohesive microstructure with higher C-S-H gel concentration and reduced porosity, directly improving the concrete's mechanical properties.

5. Slump and Compaction value decreases with the increase in SCBA and SD proportions. This trend indicates a reduction in the workability of the concrete mixture as the quantity of these substitute materials increases.

6. A notable increase in water absorption for concrete mixes with higher replacement ratios of SCBA and SD was observed. This trend, consistent across both mixes, suggests that the introduction of SCBA and SD at elevated proportions directly influences the porosity and permeability of the concrete. As the replacement levels of these materials increase, the concrete's ability to absorb water is enhanced, indicating a structural alteration in the matrix.

7. Use of SD improves the density of fresh concrete to some extent. It is due to better packing of particles and also of slightly higher specific gravity of SD as compared to sand.

8. RSM effectively identified optimal BA and SD proportions for desired mechanical properties and durability. This approach underscores the importance of precise mix design in achieving targeted performance metrics.

Funding:

The research is partially funded by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education of the Russian Federation as part of the World-class Research Center program: Advanced Digital Technologies (contract No. 075-15-2022-311 dated 20.04.2022).

Data Availability Statement:

The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Key Facts & Figures. https://www.cembureau.eu/about-our-industry/key-facts-figures/. 2023).
C.K. Gupta, A.K. Sachan, R. Kumar, Utilization of sugarcane bagasse ash in mortar and concrete: A review, Mater Today-Proc 65 (2022) 798-807.
D.O. Koteng, C.T. Chen, Strength development of lime-pozzolana pastes with silica fume and fly ash, Constr Build Mater 84 (2015) 294-300.
A.A. de Siqueira, G.C. Cordeiro, Properties of binary and ternary mixes of cement, sugarcane bagasse ash and limestone, Constr Build Mater 317(126150) (2022) 1-8.
O. Onikeku, S.M. Shitote, J. Mwero, A.A. Adedeji, C. Kanali, Compressive Strength and Slump Prediction of Two Blended Agro Waste Materials Concretes, The Open Civil Engineering Journal 13(1) (2019) 118-128.
A.A. Beni, H. Jabbari, Nanomaterials for Environmental Applications, Results Eng 15 (2022).
E. Arif, M.W. Clark, N. Lake, Sugar cane bagasse ash from a high efficiency co-generation boiler: Applications in cement and mortar production, Constr Build Mater 128 (2016) 287-297.
W.E. Farrant, A.J. Babafemi, J.T. Kolawole, B. Panda, Influence of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash and Silica Fume on the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Concrete, Materials 15(9) (2022).
A. Gupta, N. Gupta, K.K. Saxena, Mechanical and Durability Characteristics Assessment of Geopolymer Composite (GPC) at Varying Silica Fume Content, Journal of Composites Science 5(9) (2021) 1-10.
N.A.S. Aljabbri, M.N. Hussein, A.A. Khamees, Performance of Ultra High Strength Concrete Expose to High Rise Temperature, Ann Chim-Sci Mat 45(4) (2021) 351-359.
B. Yogitha, M. Karthikeyan, M.G.M. Reddy, Progress of sugarcane bagasse ash applications in production of Eco-Friendly concrete - Review, Mater Today-Proc 33 (2020) 695-699.
T.A. Abdalla, D.O. Koteng, S.M. Shitote, M. Matallah, Mechanical Properties of Eco-friendly Concrete Made with Sugarcane Bagasse Ash, Civ Eng J-Tehran 8(6) (2022) 1227-1239.
S. Singh, S. Khan, R. Khandelwal, A. Chugh, R. Nagar, Performance of sustainable concrete containing granite cutting waste, J Clean Prod 119 (2016) 86-98.
I.S. Aliyu, T.A.; Mohammed, A.; Kaura, J., Effect of Sulphuric Acid on the Compressive Strength of Concrete with Quarry Dust as Partial Replacement of Fine Aggregate, FUDMA Journal of Sciences 4(1) (2020) 553-559.
S. Singh, R. Nagar, V. Agrawal, A. Rana, A. Tiwari, Sustainable utilization of granite cutting waste in high strength concrete, J Clean Prod 116 (2016) 223-235.
K.H. Kartini, M.; Norhana, A.; Nur Hanani, A., Quarry dust fine powder as substitute for ordinary Portland cement in concrete mix, Journal of Engineering Science and Technology 9(2) (2014) 191-205.
E. Bacarji, R.D. Toledo, E.A.B. Koenders, E.P. Figueiredo, J.L.M.P. Lopes, Sustainability perspective of marble and granite residues as concrete fillers, Constr Build Mater 45 (2013) 1-10.
P.S. Gar, N. Suresh, V. Bindiganavile, Sugar cane bagasse ash as a pozzolanic admixture in concrete for resistance to sustained elevated temperatures, Constr Build Mater 153 (2017) 929-936.
K. Ganesan, K. Rajagopal, K. Thangavel, Evaluation of bagasse ash as supplementary cementitious material, Cement Concrete Comp 29(6) (2007) 515-524.
G.C. Cordeiro, R.D. Toledo, L.M. Tavares, E.D.R. Fairbairn, Ultrafine grinding of sugar cane bagasse ash for application as pozzolanic admixture in concrete, Cement Concrete Res 39(2) (2009) 110-115.
M.A.Q. Adajar, K.R. Valbuena, Optimization of the Strength Properties of Expansive Soil Stabilized with Agricultural Wastes, Int J Geomate 21(88) (2021) 35-41.
A. Bahurudeen, D. Kanraj, V.G. Dev, M. Santhanam, Performance evaluation of sugarcane bagasse ash blended cement in concrete, Cement Concrete Comp 59 (2015) 77-88.
L.C. Dang, B. Fatahi, H. Khabbaz, Behaviour of Expansive Soils Stabilized with Hydrated Lime and Bagasse Fibres, Procedia Engineer 143 (2016) 658-665.
V.N. Castaldelli, J.L. Akasaki, J.L.P. Melges, M.M. Tashima, L. Soriano, M.V. Borrachero, J. Monzo, J. Paya, Use of Slag/Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) Blends in the Production of Alkali-Activated Materials, Materials 6(8) (2013) 3108-3127.
R. Srinivasan, K. Sathiya, Experimental Study on Bagasse Ash in Concrete, International Journal for Service Learning in Engineering, Humanitarian Engineering and Social Entrepreneurship 5(2) (2010) 60-66.
B. Radke, Sugarcane bagasse ash waste, Biofuels and Agriculture – A Technical Overview, State of Food and Agriculture (2012).
A. Bahurudeen, K. Wani, M.A. Basit, M. Santhanam, Assesment of Pozzolanic Performance of Sugarcane Bagasse Ash, J Mater Civil Eng 28(2) (2016).
P.G. Quedou, E. Wirquin, C. Bokhoree, Sustainable concrete: Potency of sugarcane bagasse ash as a cementitious material in the construction industry, Case Stud Constr Mat 14 (2021).
N. Shafiq, A. Abd Elhameed, M.F. Nuruddin, Durability of Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash (SCBA) Concrete towards Chloride Ion Penetration, Appl Mech Mater 567 (2014) 369-374.
S. Rukzon, P. Chindaprasirt, Utilization of bagasse ash in high-strength concrete, Mater Design 34 (2012) 45-50.
J.K. Steinberger, F. Krausmann, N. Eisenmenger, Global patterns of materials use: A socioeconomic and geophysical analysis, Ecol Econ 69(5) (2010) 1148-1158.
L.S. Silva, M. Amario, C.M. Stolz, K.V. Figueiredo, A.N. Haddad, A Comprehensive Review of Stone Dust in Concrete: Mechanical Behavior, Durability, and Environmental Performance, Buildings-Basel 13(7) (2023).
L.A. Taiwo, I.I. Obianyo, A.O. Omoniyi, A.P. Onwualu, A.B.O. Soboyejo, O.O. Amu, Mechanical behaviour of composite produced with quarry dust and rice husk ash for sustainable building applications, Case Stud Constr Mat 17 (2022).
A.E.M. Abd Elmoaty, Mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of concrete modified with granite dust, Constr Build Mater 47 (2013) 743-752.
S.M. S. Nazma, Special Concrete by Using Quarry Dust as PartialReplacement of Cement, TEST Engineering and Management 83 (2020) 2020-2026.
B.P.R. V.S. Kumar, M.L.N.K. Sai, Experimental Study On Partial Replacement of Cement with Quarry Dust, International Journal of Advanced Engineering Research and Studies II(III) (2013) 136–137.
M.N.A. J.N. Akhtar, Enhancement in properties of concrete with demolished waste aggregate, GE-International Journal of Engineering Research 2(9) (2014) 73-83.
R. Yadav, Effect of Waste Glass Powder and Stone Dust on the Characteristics of Concrete, International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology 9(1) (2021) 421-425.
R. Woods, G. Turuallo, H. Mallisa, N. Rupang, M. Yoshida, M. Miyajima, K. Alauddin, S. Arifin, A. Fadjar, A. Rusdin, A.A. Adam, Sustainable development: Using stone dust to replace a part of sand in concrete mixture, MATEC Web of Conferences 331(1) (2020) 1-7.
J.N.A. M.N. Akhtar, O. Hattamleh, The Study of Fibre Reinforced Fly Ash Lime Stone Dust Bricks with Glass Powder, International Journal of Engineering and Advance technology 3(1) (2013) 314-319.
V.S.S. F. Kala, Shrinkage properties of HPC using granite powder as fine aggregate, International Journal of Engineering and Advance technology 2(3) (2013) 637-643.
O.M.K. G.L. Oyekan, Effect of Nigerian rice husk ash on some engineering properties of sandcrete blocks and concrete, Research Journal of Applied Sciences 3(5) (2008) 345-351.
M. Vijayalakshmi, A.S.S. Sekar, G.G. Prabhu, Strength and durability properties of concrete made with granite industry waste, Constr Build Mater 46 (2013) 1-7.
M.C. Rao, Influence of brick dust, stone dust, and recycled fine aggregate on properties of natural and recycled aggregate concrete, Struct Concrete (2020).
M.N. Ayaz Khan, N. Liaqat, I. Ahmed, A. Basit, M. Umar, M.A. Khan, Effect of Brick Dust on Strength and Workability of Concrete, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering 414 (2018) 1-6.
K. Sundaralingam, A. Peiris, A. Anburuvel, N. Sathiparan, Quarry dust as river sand replacement in cement masonry blocks: Effect on mechanical and durability characteristics, Materialia 21 (2022).
U.N. Okonkwo, E.E. Arinze, S.U. Ubochi, Predictive Model for Elapsed Time Between Mixing Operation and Compaction of Lateritic Soil Treated with Lime and Quarry Dust for Sub-base of Low-cost Roads, Int J Pavement Res T 15(1) (2022) 243-255.
M. Galetakis, G. Alevizos, K. Leventakis, Evaluation of fine limestone quarry by-products, for the production of building elements - An experimental approach, Constr Build Mater 26(1) (2012) 122-130.
P. Turgut, Masonry composite material made of limestone powder and fly ash, Powder Technol 204(1) (2010) 42-47.
H.M. Algin, P. Turgut, Cotton and limestone powder wastes as brick material, Constr Build Mater 22(6) (2008) 1074-1080.
ASTM C150/C150M-22, Standard Specification for Portland Cement, (2022). ASTM International.
ASTM C136/C136M-19, Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates.
ASTM C33/C33M-18, Standard Specification for Concrete Aggregates. (2018). ASTM International.
ASTM C128-22, Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Fine Aggregate. (2022). ASTM International.
ASTM C136/C136M-19, Standard Test Method for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates. (2019). ASTM International.
ASTM C127-15, Standard Test Method for Relative Density (Specific Gravity) and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate. (2015). ASTM International.
ASTM C143/C143M-20, Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete. (2020). ASTM International.
IS: 1199 – 1959, Method of sampling and analysis of concrete. (1959). Bureau of Indian Standards.
ASTM: C873-94/C39-96, Standard Test Method for Compressive Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. (1996). ASTM International.
ASTM C496/C496M-17, Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete Specimens. (2017). ASTM International.
ASTM C78/C78M-22, Standard Test Method for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Loading). (2022). ASTM International.
ASTM C642-13, Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, And Voids in Hardened Concrete. (2013). ASTM International.
E.M.R. Fairbairn, B.B. Americano, G.C. Cordeiro, T.P. Paula, R.D. Toledo, M.M. Silvoso, Cement replacement by sugar cane bagasse ash: CO2 emissions reduction and potential for carbon credits, J Environ Manage 91(9) (2010) 1864-1871.
N. Chusilp, C. Jaturapitakkul, K. Kiattikomol, Utilization of bagasse ash as a pozzolanic material in concrete, Constr Build Mater 23(11) (2009) 3352-3358.
L. Landa-Ruiz, A. Landa-Gomez, J.M. Mendoza-Rangel, A. Landa-Sanchez, H. Ariza-Figueroa, C.T. Mendez-Ramirez, G. Santiago-Hurtado, V.M. Moreno-Landeros, R. Croche, M.A. Baltazar-Zamora, Physical, Mechanical and Durability Properties of Ecofriendly Ternary Concrete Made with Sugar Cane Bagasse Ash and Silica Fume, Crystals 11(9) (2021).
D.P.P. G.Balamurugan, BEHAVIOUR OF CONCRETE ON THE USE OF QUARRY DUST TO REPLACE SAND – AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY, Engineering Science and Technology: An International Journal 3(6) (2013) 776-781.
Design Expert, 'Version 7.0.0. Stat-Ease,' Design Expert Inc., Minneapolis, 2005.

No competing interests reported.

Download PDF

Reviews received at journal
11 Nov, 2024
Reviews received at journal
07 Nov, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
01 Nov, 2024
Reviews received at journal
29 Oct, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
28 Oct, 2024
Reviews received at journal
03 Oct, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
21 Sep, 2024
Reviewers agreed at journal
18 Sep, 2024
Reviewers invited by journal
18 Sep, 2024
Editor assigned by journal
18 Sep, 2024
Editor invited by journal
10 Sep, 2024
Submission checks completed at journal
07 Sep, 2024
First submitted to journal
31 Aug, 2024

You are reading this latest preprint version

Optimizing Concrete Sustainability: Impact of Bagasse Ash and Stone Dust on Mechanical Properties and Durability

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1 Introduction

2 Experimental program

2.1 Materials

2.2 Test setup

2.2.1 Tests on fresh concrete

2.2.1.1 Slump test

2.2.1.2 Compaction factor test

2.2.2 Tests on hardened concrete

2.2.2.1 Manufacture of specimens

2.2.2.2 Test setup

3 Experimental Results

3.1 Workability of fresh concrete

3.1.1 Slump test

3.1.2 Compaction factor test

3.2 Mechanical properties and durability of hardened concrete

3.2.1 Concrete compressive strength

3.2.2 Concrete split tensile strength

3.2.3 Concrete flexural strength

3.2.4 Concrete water absorption for durability

4 Discussion

4.1 Influence of SCBA and SD on properties of concrete

4.1.1 Influence on compressive strength

4.1.2 Influence on split tensile strength

4.1.3 Influence on flexural strength

4.1.4 Influence on water absorption

4.2 Microstructure analysis

4.3 Response surface analysis

5 Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1