Baseline Characteristics and QCT in Patients with COPD
All patients in this study were male, with a mean age of 67.5 ± 6.9 years and a history of smoking, reflecting the typical epidemiological profile observed in Southeast Asia, particularly in Vietnam [11]. The mean number of exacerbations in the last 12 months was 2.2 ± 1.2, with 1.63 ± 0.8 requiring hospitalization. These figures are higher than those reported in other regional studies [12], [13]. This discrepancy could be attributed to the fact that most participants were classified as GOLD stage 2 or higher and were of advanced age, both of which are associated with more frequent exacerbations. Additionally, suboptimal management of treatment could have contributed to the higher exacerbation rates [14].
The mean mMRC dyspnea score was 2.23 ± 0.57, and the mean distance in the 6-minute walk test (6MWT) was 326.7 ± 88.2 meters. These results align with the observed degree of airflow obstruction in the study population, which had a mean post-bronchodilator FEV1% of 45.1 ± 14.9%. The 6MWT is a straightforward and effective tool for assessing overall exercise capacity without requiring specialized equipment or extensive technician training. It evaluates the combined function of several body systems involved in exercise, including respiratory, cardiovascular, circulatory, peripheral blood circulation, neuromuscular, and muscle metabolism. This test is particularly useful in evaluating exercise capacity in patients with moderate to severe COPD [15].
In this study, the average rate of emphysema was 13.25 ± 13.97% in the right lung, 13.04 ± 11.05% in the left lung, and 12.8 ± 11.64% for the total lung. One patient presented with an emphysema-predominant phenotype, with an EI of 44.9%. Classification of emphysema severity using QCT revealed that 46.7% of patients had level 2 emphysema, 36.7% had level 0, and 16.6% had level 1. Emphysema acts both as a cause and a consequence of recurrent infections and systemic inflammation in the pathogenesis of COPD. Therefore, whether a patient presents with emphysema or chronic bronchitis, the processes of alveolar destruction and the development of emphysematous areas in the lungs will continue. The severity of emphysema typically progresses over time and, along with airway remodeling, is a significant contributor to declining lung function.
Emphysema is a key phenotype of COPD, characterized by the abnormal and irreversible destruction of alveoli and terminal bronchioles, accompanied by the destruction of bronchial walls without evident fibrosis. QCT is essential for assessing lung structure and function in patients with emphysema. QCT can distinguish between subgroups with predominant emphysema phenotypes and those with predominant airway inflammation phenotypes in COPD. It also provides detailed imaging and analysis of lung parenchyma, which aids in predicting the prognosis of COPD patients. The EI derived from CT has recently been reported as a valuable predictor of FEV1/FVC ratios [3], [10], [16]. According to Qi Ding et al., an EI threshold of 16.2% can be considered a diagnostic marker for COPD in patients with chronic bronchitis [4].
While spirometry remains the gold standard for diagnosing, classifying severity, and monitoring treatment response in COPD, low-dose computed tomography with quantitative analysis is increasingly recognized for its role in the early detection of lung parenchymal and airway abnormalities, especially in high-risk populations [1]. QCT is effective in evaluating the extent and severity of damage caused by emphysema, which can be categorized into centrilobular emphysema (CLE), panlobular emphysema (PLE), and paraseptal emphysema (PSE). Combining qualitative and quantitative assessments enhances the ability to provide personalized care for COPD patients. Additionally, QCT can assess other lung and airway changes, such as bronchial wall thickening, small airway inflammation, tracheal abnormalities, and bronchiectasis, in detail [17], [18].
Associations of Emphysema Levels with Clinical and Subclinical Characteristics, and Serum VEGF and IL-1β Concentrations in COPD Patients
The analysis revealed that the frequency of exacerbations increased proportionally with the severity of emphysema across all GOLD stages. Notably, in the GOLD 4 group, there was a significant correlation between the frequency of exacerbations, the number of hospitalizations, and the severity of emphysema. Additionally, mMRC score significantly increased with the severity of emphysema. These findings suggest that the degree of emphysema visualized on QCT images could serve as a reliable predictor for the management and treatment of COPD, especially in patients with severe airflow obstruction.
The study also showed that BMI, FEV1%, FEV1/FVC ratio, and serum albumin concentrations progressively decreased as the severity of emphysema increased. This observation aligns with the classic classification of COPD phenotypes based on clinical characteristics proposed in 1955, which divided patients into two groups: "blue bloaters" and "pink puffers." The "pink puffer" phenotype is characterized by predominant emphysema, a lean body type, and pink lips due to chronic hypercapnia [19]. This longstanding recognition of the inverse relationship between BMI, blood albumin concentration, and the degree of emphysema further supports these findings. Although some studies have reported no significant differences in age or BMI between emphysema and non-emphysema groups [20], these discrepancies could be due to differences in study design, subject selection, and population characteristics.
Our study found a strong inverse correlation between EI and both FEV1% and FEV1/FVC ratios. Specifically, when the EI reaches level 2 or higher, lung function tends to decline more rapidly. This suggests that emphysema progression is a direct cause of lung function deterioration.
While there is heterogeneity in lung damage among different COPD patients, studies have consistently identified two primary types of damage that play critical roles in the development and progression of the disease: airway remodeling, especially of the small airways, and the irreversible destruction of alveoli and terminal bronchioles. Based on these understandings, studies using QCT to evaluate COPD phenotypes have consistently categorized patients into two groups: those with predominant chronic bronchitis and those with predominant emphysema. Furthermore, the poor response to anti-inflammatory therapies in patients with a predominant emphysema phenotype presents a significant challenge in their management [4], [10], [20].
Patients with emphysema had significantly lower FEV1 and FEV1/FVC ratios than those without emphysema, indicating a higher degree of airflow obstruction in this group. Additionally, the diffusion capacity for carbon monoxide was significantly reduced in patients with emphysema, reflecting impaired gas exchange—a key physiological characteristic of pulmonary emphysema [20].
The mean plasma VEGF concentration in our study was 70 ± 46.6 pg/ml. An inverse correlation was observed between VEGF concentration and emphysema severity, with VEGF levels gradually decreasing as EI increased. In the GOLD 3 and 4 groups, VEGF levels declined more rapidly with increasing emphysema severity. This suggests that a reduction in plasma VEGF may contribute to the progression of emphysema in COPD. VEGF, a cytokine involved in vascular permeability, remodeling, and angiogenesis, is produced by immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils and is thought to play a crucial role in maintaining structural balance in the adult lung. Serum VEGF levels are higher in COPD patients compared to controls and are positively correlated with CRP levels and peripheral blood neutrophil counts. Additionally, VEGF levels have been linked to inflammation, lung function, and exercise capacity in COPD patients [21], [22].
Experimental studies have demonstrated that inhibiting VEGF receptors in animal models leads to significant apoptosis of alveolar cells, resulting in the development of emphysema. This finding underscores the importance of VEGF in maintaining alveolar structure, suggesting that decreased expression or activity of VEGF could lead to emphysematous changes in the lung [23].
Further studies have investigated changes in serum VEGF levels over time in COPD patients, both in stable conditions and during exacerbations. These studies have shown that lower serum VEGF levels are associated with more severe forms of emphysema and greater declines in lung function. This suggests that serum VEGF could serve as a biomarker for identifying patients at high risk of developing emphysema. Although more research is needed to fully understand this relationship, current evidence supports the potential of serum VEGF as a biomarker and therapeutic target in managing emphysema in COPD patients. Monitoring serum VEGF levels may facilitate early detection and individualized treatment strategies for COPD. Interestingly, while decreased VEGF levels are associated with emphysema, increased VEGF expression has been observed in patients with chronic bronchitis. This highlights the complex role of VEGF in different forms of COPD—where it may contribute to airway remodeling in chronic bronchitis, while its deficiency exacerbates alveolar destruction in emphysema [6].
VEGF is crucial for regulating vascular permeability, remodeling, and angiogenesis. It is produced by immune cells such as macrophages and neutrophils and is essential for maintaining lung structural integrity in adults. Studies have shown that serum VEGF levels are higher in COPD patients than in healthy controls and are positively associated with inflammatory markers like CRP and peripheral blood neutrophil counts. VEGF levels also correlate with inflammation, lung function, and exercise capacity in COPD patients, underscoring its multifaceted role in the disease's pathophysiology [22], [24].
The study found that the mean plasma IL-1β concentration in COPD patients was 11.2 ± 11 pg/ml, with no clear correlation with EI or the risk of acute exacerbations. However, a significant decrease in IL-1β concentration was observed in patients with emphysema levels of 25% or higher. Chronic airway inflammation is a central mechanism in the pathogenesis and progression of COPD, with neutrophil-mediated inflammation playing a key role.
This inflammatory process is thought to be driven by pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-17, which are critical in initiating and sustaining chronic airway inflammation. Research highlights the pivotal role of IL-1β in the progression of chronic inflammation and emphysema, suggesting that an imbalance in the cytokine network is a crucial pathogenic mechanism in the development and persistence of chronic inflammation in COPD patients [8], [25].
IL-1β levels are believed to be associated with inflammation, disease severity, and the frequency of exacerbations [7]. Elevated serum IL-1β levels during exacerbations are significantly higher in COPD patients compared to stable COPD patients or healthy controls. These elevated levels are positively correlated with serum CRP levels, neutrophil percentages, and smoking status, while negatively correlated with FEV1% in COPD patients. Therefore, elevated serum IL-1β levels could potentially serve as a biomarker for assessing the progression of persistent neutrophilic airway inflammation and the risk of severe disease [8].
It’s important to acknowledge the limitations of our study. Firstly, it was a single-center study with a small sample size, limiting its representativeness. Secondly, we were unable to quantitatively measure the concentrations of VEGF and IL-1β in sputum or bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, which would provide a more comprehensive assessment of their relationship with serum concentrations. Finally, long-term follow-up is required to evaluate the progression of emphysema over time to accurately determine the relationship between plasma cytokine concentrations and emphysema development as seen on QCT. Future studies will expand on this research with a multicenter model and a larger sample size.