The optical microscope image analysis (Fig. 2) of soil samples amended with cow dung revealed significant microstructural changes in both sandy and clay soils. In sandy soil, the addition of cow dung particles reduced the presence of large macropores, filling void spaces and enhancing water retention capacity. The microstructure showed a balance between macro and micropores, improving water availability while maintaining aeration(Que et al. 2023). In clay soil, cow dung functioned as an organic binder, promoting particle aggregation and enhancing soil structure. This increased the formation of soil aggregates, which improved aeration and water movement while maintaining the inherent water-holding capacity of clay.
Figure 2 Optical microscope Images Showing the Interaction of Cow Dung with Sand (A) and Clay (B) Soil Particles, Highlighting Macro and Micropores
The RWC in soil is a crucial parameter that directly affects plant growth, soil health, and various environmental processes(González and González-Vilar 2001). It refers to the amount of water present in the soil compared to its maximum water holding capacity. This metric provides valuable insights into soil moisture levels, which are essential for plant hydration and nutrient uptake(Batool et al. 2020). Additionally, RWC influences soil structure and stability, affecting erosion susceptibility and land use planning(Wei et al. 2023). Understanding this parameter helps farmers optimize irrigation schedules, preventing both water scarcity and waterlogging, which can damage crops and degrade soil quality(Topp 2003). Moreover, RWC influences microbial activity in the soil, affecting nutrient cycling and overall ecosystem functioning. Thus, sustainable agriculture and environmental management need soil water monitoring and management.
As shown in Fig. 3, the addition of cow dung enhances water retention A significant impact was detected across all kinds of soil at the 10% cow dung concentration (D3). Particularly high-water-content soils, such Sandy Clay Loam and Loam, indicate that 10% cow dung is optimal for improving water retention. compared to Clay, which regularly exhibits reduced water content, nonetheless derives advantages from the use of cow dung. Soils like Silt and Loamy Sand demonstrate substantial increases, especially at higher dung levels. The highest water retention is recorded in Loamy Sand at 5% cow dung, indicating its superior capacity for water absorption when augmented with organic matter. These findings underscore the potential of cow dung as an effective soil amendment for improving water-holding capacity, which is crucial for agricultural sustainability and productivity. The reality that different soil types have varying impacts shows how important it is to adjust cow dung treatments based on soil conditions for best outcomes. This study provides valuable insights into the role of organic amendments in soil water management, emphasizing that a 10% cow dung addition may serve as an optimal level for most soil types.
Across the experiments (D1 to D5), there are variations in RWC for each soil type. For instance, in some experiments, certain soil types may show higher or lower water content values due to differences in irrigation regimes or precipitation patterns.
The ANOVA analysis of RWC provides valuable insights into the complex correlation between soil types and moisture dynamics. Our research has shown a large amount of variation in water retention across the different soil types studied, as indicated by a computed F-statistic of 2.6036 and a corresponding p-value of 0.011. This diversity not only underscores the intricate connections between soil composition and moisture levels but also underscores the significance of customised management tactics in agricultural and environmental settings.
A linear regression model (Fig. 4) was used to examine the connection between RWC and cow dung on soil water retention across soil types. We can identify the unique impacts of cow manure on soil water retention by looking at the intercept and slope values for each soil type. Soil types with positive slopes, for example, suggest that applying cow dung increases soil moisture, which might lead to better agricultural yields and healthier soil. However, when it comes soils with a negative slope, the use of cow dung may exacerbate soil drying. Therefore, it is crucial to exercise caution while managing cow manure to prevent excessive moisture loss.
The gravimetric measurement of water content is essential for comprehending the dynamics of soil moisture, as it offers valuable information about the water that is accessible to plants for their development and other biological activities(Bittelli 2011; Mukhlisin et al. 2021). The GWC is affected by many variables, including soil texture, structure, organic matter concentration, and environmental circumstances such as precipitation and evaporation rates. Monitoring and maintaining the GWC are crucial for soil and water conservation, irrigation management, and crop production. This ensures that the soil moisture levels are ideal for plant health and productivity.
The provided Fig. 5 illustrates the GWC in different soil types with varied proportions of cow dung application. This data offers vital information on how organic amendment affects soil moisture levels. In Clay soil, there is a progressive rise in GWC as the proportion of cow dung goes from D1 to D5. This suggests that the addition of cow dung improves the ability of this soil type to retain moisture. In contrast, the effect of applying cow dung on water content in Sandy Loam soil is not as significant. There is only a slight increase in GWC seen at various doses of dung. Notably, Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils also show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations rise. This indicates that both soil types may have a greater ability to keep moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils exhibit less variation in water content across various dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess inferior water retention ability irrespective of organic input. The Sandy Clay Loam and Sandy Clay soils both show a similar pattern of increased water content as dung concentrations increase, indicating that both soil types may have a greater ability to retain moisture when organic amendments are applied. In contrast, Sand and Loamy Sand soils show reduced fluctuations in water content across varying dung concentrations, suggesting that these soil types may possess diminished water retention capacity irrespective of organic input.
The linear regression analysis (Fig. 6) shows discernible correlations between cow dung levels and GWC across different soil types. In clay soil, a 1% increase in cow dung levels is linked to a 0.546% increase in gravimetric water content. This increase starts from an estimated 64.74% when cow dung is not present. In contrast, sandy loam soil shows a more pronounced increase in water content. For every 1% increase in cow dung levels, there is a corresponding rise of 1.156% points in water content. This increase starts at a baseline of 41.49% when there is no cow dung present. Sandy clay and sandy clay loam show considerable reactions, whereas sand and loamy sand show more modest increments. Loam, silt loam, and silty clay responded more to cow dung, with silt loam showing the largest rise of 0.720% points for every 1% increase in cow dung. Silt and silty clay soils show substantial increases in water content when cow dung levels rise. These findings show how cow dung affects soil water flow, which affects agricultural operations and soil management strategies tailored to different soil types.
Figure 7 illustrates the correlation between cow dung levels and field capacity (FC) across various soil types, revealing a consistent decline in FC as cow dung levels increase. For instance, clay soil decreases from 1.4 at 0% cow dung to approximately 1.2 at 30%, while sandy loam falls from 1.5 to 1.2 in the same range. Similar trends are observed in other soil types, with sandy clay, loamy sand, and loam also experiencing notable reductions. These findings suggest that higher quantities of cow dung may negatively impact the soil's ability to retain moisture, primarily due to changes in soil structure and porosity. Increased cow dung can lead to larger soil aggregates, enhancing macropore formation and reducing water retention. Furthermore, elevated microbial activity and potential soil compaction exacerbate this diminished capacity. Results from one-way ANOVA (figure 8) indicate significant variations in FC among different soil types amended with cow dung, suggesting that cow dung levels can effectively modify soil water retention capacity and serve as a potential tool for agricultural soil management.
The statistical metrics analysis conducted on the porosity of soil samples with varying percentages of cow dung content reveals a significant difference in porosity among the groups.
The investigation revealed a quadratic correlation (Fig. 10) between porosity and the addition of cow dung, suggesting that the impact of cow dung on soil porosity changes in a non-linear manner as the application rates increase.