Determination of yield and water use productivity of sesame irrigated with subsurface drip irrigation under different water deficit conditions

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5275169/v1

This study investigates the effects of subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) at varying lateral depths (D1: 20 cm, D2: 30 cm, and D3: 40 cm) on evapotranspiration, water use productivity (WUP), and plant water stress index of the Muganlı-57 sesame variety. The experiments were conducted under different irrigation regimes: S1 (full irrigation without water stress), S2 (mild water stress), S3 (moderate water stress), and S4 (severe water stress). The research was conducted in 2019 and 2020 in a clay loam soil under Mediterranean climate conditions, with irrigation water quantities adjusted according to the percentage of plant cover. The average evapotranspiration values recorded for D1 at S1, S2, S3, and S4 were 338.5, 241, 143.5, and 14 mm, respectively; for D2 the values were 263, 188.5, 113.5, and 14 mm; and for D3, they were 257, 184, 111, and 14 mm. In the first year, the highest water use productivity (WUP) was recorded at D3 for S2 (8.4 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹), and in the second year, the highest WUP was again at D3 for S2, measuring 9.0 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹. Over both years, the WUP for S2 at D3 was significantly higher. In contrast, the lowest WUP values were obtained from D1 at S1, with values of 4.2 and 4.6 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the respective years. The highest irrigation water use productivity (IWUP) was achieved at D3 for S2, yielding 12.5 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the first year and 13.1 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the second year. Coversely, the lowest IWUP values were found at D1 for S1 measuring 5.1 and 5.6 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in two years. The yield response factor (Ky) for sesame plants was determined to be 1.27 in the first year and 1.21 in the second year. In conclusion, the findings of this study highlight the significant impact of lateral depth in subsurface drip irrigation on evapotranspiration and water use productivity in Muganlı-57 sesame cultivation. The results indicate that optimizing lateral depth, particularly at 40 cm with mild water stress conditions, can enhance water productivity and overall crop performance under Mediterranean climate conditions.

HYDRUS-2D\3D

Subsurface drip irrigation

sesame

optimal lateral depth

water productivity

evapotranspiration

As global droughts intensify, the agricultural sector faces increasing pressure to produce more food while conserving water. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) emerges as a promising solution to this challenge. This innovative technique delivers water directly to the root zone, significantly minimizing evaporation and runoff. By optimizing water use, SDI helps to maintain soil fertility and enhance crop yields. Consequently, it is becoming an essential tool in sustainable agriculture, especially in regions facing water scarcity.

Subsurface drip irrigation offers a significant advantage in both crop yield and water conservation. By delivering water directly to the root zone, SDI minimizes surface wetting and evaporation losses. Previous studies, such as those by Camp (1998, 2003) and Lamm (2002), have consistently shown that SDI can achieve comparable or greater crop yields to other irrigation methods while often using less water. The dry soil surface not only conserves water but also extends the lifespan of the buried SDI system.

Sesame (Sesamum indicum L.),, a globally important oilseed crop, is known for its high oil content (47–52%) and adaptability to various farming systems. It is suitable for various crop rotations and can be cultivated by small farmers with low input requirements (Ashri, 1995). While its cultivation area and production volume have declined in Turkey over the past decades (from 940,00 ha and 45,000 tons in 1988 to 248,60 ha and 16,900 tons in 2019), the yield per hectare has steadily increased from 480 kg to 680 kg during the same period (TUIK, 2019).

Sesame plants are highly sensitive to environmental factors, including temperature, humidity, rainfall, and soil moisture (Uçan et al., 2007). Irrigation plays a crucial role in mitigating the impact of these factors yield and quality. Research by Hong et al. (2019) indicates that the negative effects of drought stress during the vegetative growth. This can lead to a significant decline in sesame seed yield, primarily due to reduced plant height. Climate change, with its influence on annual precipitation and soil fertility, further exacerbates these challenges for sesame production.

This research aims to optimize subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) for sesame cultivation in Western Mediterranean region of Turkiye. By exploring various lateral depths, we seek to determine the most efficient irrigation system regarding water use efficiency, yield, and yield response factors under limited irrigation conditions. This study will contribute to sustainable sesame production, especially in areas facing water scarcity.

2.1. Study area and climate

The research was conducted at the Western Mediterranean Agricultural Research Institute (BATEM) in Antalya province, Turkiye, between 2019 and 2020. This study area is situated at 36º 56' 29'' North latitude and 30º 53' 04'' East longitude, with an elevation of 11 meters above sea level. The long-term monthly average climate data for the 2019–2020 growing season is shown in Table 1. The experimental site experiences a Mediterranean climate, characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Annual average temperature is 18.9°C, with January being the coldest month at 8.7°C and July the hottest at 30.6°C. The annual average relative humidity is 69.3%, and total rainfall averages 768 mm (MGM, 2020).

Table 1

Average Monthly Climate Data for the Years 2009–2018 Compared to the 2019–2020 Growing Season
Years	Months		Precipitation (mm)	Relative Humidity (%)	Wind Speed (%)
2009–2018	May	20.9	53.0	69.9	3.0
	June	25.5	13.0	64.8	3.0
	July	28.5	3.0	63.5	3.0
	August	28.3	2.0	66.0	3.0
	September	24.9	22.0	67.0	2.8
2019	May	21.3	0.24	66.9	1.8
	June	25.7	0.41	64.6	1.7
	July	27.9	-	60.8	1.7
	August	28.3	0.2	65.5	1.5
	September	26.7	9.5	66.0	1.8
2020	May	28.9	1.7	68.6	2.0
	June	23.7	-	70.7	1.8
	July	28.6	-	70.4	1.7
	August	28.3	-	66.2	1.7
	September	25.8	12.0	69.0	1.9

2.2. Soil and Irrigation Water Characteristics

The physical and chemical properties of the soils, and the quality characteristics of the irrigation water in the study area are presented in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. The field capacity moisture content ranged from 22–23%, while the permanent wilting point varied between 11% and 13%. The infiltration rate was measured at 13.5 mm h⁻¹.

Table 2

The physical and chemical properties of the soils
Depth (cm)	Sand (%)	Clay (%)	Silt (%)	Texture Class	CaCO₃ _(%)	EC (dS m^− 1)	pH	Field Capacity (g g^− 1)	Wilting Point (g g^− 1)	Bulk Density (g cm^− 3)
0–30	24	32	44	CL	25.6	0.10	8.3	23.5	10.8	1.31
30–60	24	28	48	CL	24.8	0.11	8.3	23.4	11.1	1.38
60–90	36	24	40	L	23.7	0.16	8.4	23.1	11.7	1.43
90–120	26	26	48	L	23.9	0.15	8.3	23.2	10.8	1.41

Some chemical properties of the irrigation water used in this study are summarized in Table 3. The electrical conductivity (EC) of the irrigation water was 0.462 dS m⁻¹, and the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) was 0.34, indicating no significant risk to the growth of sesame plants. According to the classification by Ayers and Westcot (1985), the irrigation water quality is categorized as C2S1.

Table 3

Some chemical properties of the irrigation water used in the experiment
pH	EC (dS m^− 1)	Cations (me L^− 1)				Anions (me L^− 1)				Class
pH	EC (dS m^− 1)	Na⁺	K⁺	Ca⁺⁺	Mg⁺	CO˭	HCO₃⁻	Cl⁻	SO₄˭	Class
7.30	0.56	0.49	0.05	4.23	1.85	-	5.03	0.53	1.06	C₂S₁

2.3. Plant Material, Fertilizer Applications, and Sowing

The Muganlı-57 sesame variety, which is widely cultivated in Mediterranean and Southeastern Anatolia regions of Turkiye was used in the experiment. This variety is registered with BATEM (Fig. 1). The Muganlı-57 variety has an average yield of 797 kg ha⁻¹, a thousand-seed weight of 3.6 g, an oil content of 58.8%, and a protein content of 18%.

Based on the soil analysis, fertilizers consisting of 10 kg N ha⁻¹ and 6 kg P₂O₅ ha⁻¹ were uniformly applied to all plots prior to sowing. Seeds were sown with 0.7 m interrow spacing and 0.10 m intrarow spacings. A seed drill was used to sow the seeds on May 10 in 2019, and May 19 in 2020.

2.4. Irrigation Method and Installation

Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) was used to irrigate the test plots. A system of 16 mm polyethylene (PE) pipes with fixed emitters was installed in an in-line configuration. Based on the infiltration and emitter tests conducted in the experimental field, one lateral pipe was installed per plant row. Emitters were spaced 30 cm aprt with a discharge rate of 2.1 L h⁻¹. Laterals were buried at depths of 20, 30, and 40 cm from the soil surface (Fig. 3). The amount of irrigation water was monitored through water meters on the main pipeline and valves located in each experimental plot. Each plot measured 7.7 m by 20.0 m with 12 plant rows (Fig. 2). Gaps between plots were 1.5 m, and gaps between blocks were 2.0 m.

The experiment was conducted using a randomized block design with three replications to evaluate the impact of lateral depth and irrigation level on sesame growth. Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) was applied at three different depths (D1: 20 cm, D2: 30 cm, and D3: 40 cm) and four levels (S1: full irrigation without water stress, S2: mild water stress, S3: moderate water stress, and S4: severe water stress). Full irrigation treatments (D1S1, D2S1, D3S1) initiated irrigation when 40% of the available soil moisture at 0.90 m depth was depleted. Stress treatments (S2, S3, S4) reduced the amount of water by 30 and 60% compared to S1, respectively.

Soil moisture was monitored using a neutron meter. The device was calibrated for wet and dry soil conditions prior to the experiment. Neutron measurement tubes were installed to 120 cm depth, with two additional tubes were placed 15 cm and 30 cm from the laterals to track lateral water movement (Figs. 4 and 5). Moisture measurements were conducted at four different soil layers (0–30 cm, 30–60 cm, 60–90 cm, and 90–120 cm). The gravimetric method was used to verify moisture readings in the top 30 cm layer.

2.5. Evapotranspirasyon (ET), su üretkenliği (WUP), sulama suyu üretkenliği (IWUP) ve verim tepki faktörü (Ky)

Evapotranspiration (ET) was calculated for both growing seasons using the soil water balance equation (Jensen et al., 1990; Allen et al., 1998; Evet, 2002). This approach considers water inputs and outputs from the soil, providing an accurate estimation of water use through both evaporation and transpiration processes.

$$\:\text{E}\text{T}\text{c}=\text{I}+\text{P}\pm\:\varDelta\:\text{S}-{\text{D}}_{\text{p}}-{\text{R}}_{\text{f}}+{\text{W}}_{\text{g}}$$

1

In this context, ET represents crop water consumption (mm); I is the applied irrigation water (mm); P is precipitation (mm); ΔS is the change in soil water content in the effective root zone (mm); DP is deep percolation (mm); Rf is surface runoff (mm); and Wg is water used by the plant from groundwater through capillary rise (mm). Deep percolation losses were determined by monitoring soil moisture below the 90 cm root depth (90–120 cm soil layer), assessing water content beyınd the effective root zone.

The applied irrigation water (I) was measured using water meters, and precipitation (P) was recorded at the nearby meteorological station. Since the amount of irrigation water was closely monitored, deep percolation (DP) and surface runoff (Rf) were assumed to be minimal. Groundwater uptake from capillary rise (Wg) was also considered minimal due to the groundwater table’s depth of 3.5 meters (Liu and Wei, 1989).

Water productivity (WP) and irrigation water productivity (IWP) were calculated using the following equations (Howell et al., 1995):

$$\:\text{W}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{P}\text{r}\text{o}\text{d}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:\left(\text{W}\text{U}\text{P}\right)=\text{Y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\left(\text{k}\text{g}\right)/{\text{E}\text{T}}_{\text{a}\:\left(\text{m}\text{m}\right)}$$

2

$$\:\text{I}\text{r}\text{r}\text{i}\text{g}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{W}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{P}\text{r}\text{o}\text{d}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:\left(\text{I}\text{W}\text{U}\text{P}\right)=\frac{\text{Y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\left(\text{k}\text{g}\right)}{\text{I}}\left(mm\right)$$

3

In the equation; YLD represents sesame yield (kg ha⁻¹), ETa is seasonal actual crop water consumption (mm), and I is seasonal irrigation water (mm). The yield response factor (Ky), which indicates the reduction in yield relative to the decrease in crop water consumption due to water stress, was calculated using Eq. 4 (Stewart et al., 1976; Doorenbos and Kassam, 1979).

$$\:1-\frac{\text{Y}\text{a}}{\text{Y}\text{m}}={\text{K}}_{\text{y}}\left(1-\frac{{\text{E}\text{T}}_{\text{a}}}{{\text{E}\text{T}}_{\text{m}}}\right)$$

4

Where; Y_a is the actual yield under water-limited conditions; Ym is is the maximum yield under full irrigation; ET_a is the actual crop water consumption under water-limited conditions; ET_m is is the maximum crop water consumption under full irrigation, and Ky represents the crop yield response factor to water stress.

2.6. Harvest, yield and statistical analysis

The flowering and growth occur concurrently in sesame plants. This unique trait leads to the maturation of capsules at different times on the same plant, with the lower capsules maturing first. The criteria for harvesting the plants include the browning of the seeds inside the lower capsules, the yellowing of the stems and capsules, and leaf drop.

Considering plant physiology and the duration of the growing season, irrigations were terminated on August 4, 2019, and on August 15, 2020. Throughout the trial period, the number of days elapsed since sowing (EDGS) for the sesame plants ranged from 116 to 136 days. Harvesting commenced first in the rain-fed treatment (S4), while the final harvesting took place in the fully irrigated treatment (S1). This harvesting schedule highlights the differences in maturation rates influenced by irrigation practices

Plants harvested from the six rows located at the center of each plot were dried, and their seeds were collected. The seeds were then weighed to calculate the yield (kg ha⁻¹) for each replication. Furthermore, the yield values obtained from the plots were divided by the number of plants in each plot to determine the yield per plant (kg plant⁻¹). Measurements were conducted during the harvest period specific to each year.

Statistical analyses were conducted separately for each year of the study. Variance analysis was performed on the obtained data using the MSTAT_C statistical software package. To compare the means, the Duncan Multiple Range Test was employed (Gomez and Gomez, 1984). This rigorous statistical approach ensured a robust evaluation of the data, allowing for meaningful interpretations of the results across different years.

3.1. Soil water budget and crop water consumption

The plant water consumption values, determined through the soil water budget, were adjusted using the cover percentage (Pc) to derive the ETc values, which reflect the entire area. The ETc values, ETo values, rainfall amounts, and irrigation water applied to each treatment for both years were given in Table 4. Throughout the experimental period, the total growing season of the sesame plant ranged from 116 to 136 days. This variation can be attributed to the continuous flowering of plants and the application of varying amounts of water. Consequently, irrigation was concluded in alignment with the harvest physiology of the plant. Initially, equal amounts of irrigation water were applied to all treatments, followed by the implementation of specific irrigation treatments.

The application of treatments commenced on May 31 in the first year and June 4 in the second year. In 2019, a total of 356, 253, 150, and 13 mm of irrigation water was applied to the S1, S2, S3, and S4 treatments, respectively, at a lateral depth of 20 cm. For a lateral depth of 30 cm, the total irrigation water applied to the S1, S2, S3, and S4 treatments was 270, 193, 116, and 13 mm, respectively. At a lateral depth of 40 cm, the irrigation water amounts for the S1, S2, S3, and S4 treatments were 266, 190, 114, and 13 mm, respectively (Table 4).

In 2020, the irrigation water amounts applied were 321, 229, 137, and 15 mm for the S1, S2, S3, and S4 treatments at a lateral depth of 20 cm. For a lateral depth of 30 cm, the corresponding irrigation water amounts were 256, 184, 111, and 15 mm. At a lateral depth of 40 cm, the irrigation amounts for the S1, S2, S3, and S4 treatments were 248, 178, 108, and 15 mm, respectively (Table 4).

Soil moisture values for each treatment during 2019 and 2020 growing periods are illustrated in Figures 6-7-8-9-10-11. Except for the rainfed production treatment, the soil moisture content in all irrigation treatments remains between field capacity and the permanent wilting point.

Table 4. Irrigation, Rainfall, and Plant Water Consumption Values for the Treatments

Year	Lateral Depth (cm)	Treatments	Irrigation water (mm)	Rainfall (mm)	ET_c (mm)	ET_o (mm)
2019	20	S₁	356.0	12.6	431	474
		S₂	253.0		285
		S₃	150.0		257
		S₄	12.6		151
	30	S₁	270.0	12.6	312	474
		S₂	192.8		283
		S₃	115.6		206
		S₄	12.6		147
	40	S₁	266.0	12.6	288	474
		S₂	190.0		283
		S₃	114.0		272
		S₄	12.6		143
2020	20	S₁	321.0	8	390	488
		S₂	229.1		288
		S₃	137.2		204
		S₄	14.7		154
	30	S₁	256.0	8	294	488
		S₂	183.6		276
		S₃	111.2		192
		S₄	14.7		141
	40	S₁	248.0	8	273	488
		S₂	178.0		259
		S₃	108.0		240
		S₄	14.7		143

The research conducted by Uçan et al. (2007), Gaafar et al. (2019), and Elshamly et al. (2013) on sesame plants provides valuable insights into their irrigation water requirements. Uçan et al. (2007) investigated the irrigation needs of sesame plants using furrow irrigation, reporting water requirements ranging from 528.2 to 643.2 mm. Gaafar et al. (2019) compared the surface drip irrigation and SDI irrigation methods, revealing that surface drip irrigation required 558 mm of water under non-restricted conditions, while SDI demanded 763 mm. Furthermore, Elshamly et al. (2013) assessed irrigation needs under sprinkler irrigation with varying water restrictions, determining that the required water ranged between 561.4 and 737.1 mm.

3.2. Water Productivity (WUP), Irrigation Water Productivity (IWUP)

The irrigation water use productivity (IWUP) and water use productivity (WUP) values for irrigation treatments, excluding the rainfed treatment, are presented in Table 5. In both first and second years of the study, the highest WUP was obtained from the 40 cm lateral depth in the S2 treatment, with values of 8.4 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the first year and 9.0 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the second year. Across both years, the S2 treatment with a 40 cm lateral depth exhibited significantly higher WUP. Conversely, the lowest WUP values were recorded in the S1 treatment with a 20 cm lateral depth, yielding 4.2 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the first year and 4.6 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the second year. Similarly, the highest irrigation water use productivity (IWUP) was achieved in the S2 treatment with a 40 cm lateral depth, recording values of 12.5 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the first year and 13.1 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the second year. The lowest IWUP values were calculated in the S1 treatment with a 20 cm lateral depth, yielding 5.1 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ and 5.6 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ in the first and second years, respectively.

Table 5 Water use productivity and irrigation water use productivity values for the treatments

Year	Depth	Treatments	I	ET	Y	WUP	IWUP
Year	(cm)	Treatments	(mm)	(mm)	(kg ha^-1)	(kg ha^-1 mm^-1)	(kg ha^-1 mm^-1)
2019	20	S₁	356.0	431.0	18.1	4.2	5.1
		S₂	253.0	285.0	21.1	7.4	8.3
		S₃	150.0	257.0	15.9	6.2	10.6
	30	S₁	270.0	312.0	15.6	5.0	5.8
		S₂	192.8	283.0	17.9	6.3	9.3
		S₃	115.6	206.0	12.6	6.1	10.9
	40	S₁	266.0	288.0	18.4	6.4	6.9
		S₂	190.0	283.0	23.7	8.4	12.5
		S₃	114.0	272.0	13.9	5.1	12.2
2020	20	S₁	321.0	390.0	17.8	4.6	5.6
		S₂	229.1	288.0	20.8	7.2	9.1
		S₃	137.2	204.0	15.6	7.6	11.4
	30	S₁	256.0	294.0	15.2	5.2	6.0
		S₂	183.6	276.0	17.8	6.4	9.7
		S₃	111.2	192.0	13.0	6.8	11.7
	40	S₁	248.0	273.0	18.0	6.6	7.3
		S₂	178.0	259.0	23.2	9.0	13.1
		S₃	108.0	240.0	12.7	5.3	11.8

The studies cited in previous studies report a wide range of WUP and IWUP values for sesame. Scott et al. (1987) reported an average WUP value of approximately 6.0 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ for sesame. Payero et al. (2005) found that WUP varied between 2.3 and 7.4 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹, while Karam et al. (2005) noted a range of 3.9 to 5.7 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹. Similar results were observed in the studies by Liu et al. (2003) and Irmak et al. (2014). For IWUP, Candoğan et al. (2013) reported that IWUP values under full irrigation and water stress conditions were 7.1 and 21.7 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹, respectively. In contrast, Kırnak et al. (2010) found IWUP values ranging from 6.7 to 4.2 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ under full irrigation and water stress conditions. Additionally, Irmak et al. (2014) observed that WUP and IWUP values ranged between 7.71 and 8.94 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹ and 5.15 to 10.35 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹, respectively. Baştuğ et al. (2016) conducted a study on second crop sesame in Antalya, Turkey, using lysimeters. They evaluated the WUP of the Muganlı-57 and Birkan sesame varieties. Their findings indicated that WUP values ranged from 0.18 to 0.41 kg da⁻¹ mm⁻¹, with the Muganlı-57 variety exhibiting the highest WUP. These results align with the previous studies, suggesting a consistent pattern in the WUP of sesame across different regions and growing conditions.

Hailu et al. (2018) conducted a three-year study in Ethiopia to investigate the impact of water deficit and irrigation techniques on sesame under irrigated conditions. Their findings revealed a range of IWUP values between 0.994 and 1.654 kg ha⁻¹ mm⁻¹. These IWUP values differ from those reported in previous studies, potentially due to factors such as climate conditions, irrigation schedules, and the cultivation of sesame as a second crop. Overall, the findings of Hailu et al. (2018) highlight the importance of considering local climatic conditions, irrigation practices, and crop rotation when studying sesame's water use efficiency

3.3. Yield Response Factor (Ky)

The water-yield relationship for sesame was calculated using the Stewart equation (Figures 12 and 13), with Ky values calculated for 2019 (1.27) and 2020 (1.21). The determination coefficients (R²) were found to be 0.96 for the first year and 0.95 for the second year. When both years were evaluated together, the Ky value was determined to be 1.24, with a determination coefficient (R²) of 0.92. The Ky values reported in the literature for sesame vary significantly, ranging from 0.45 (Şimşek et al., 2003) to 1.28 (Kumraltekin, 2021). This variability can be attributed to differences in climate and soil conditions, irrigation methods, and the amount of water applied. These factors can significantly influence how sesame plants respond to water stress.

The study findings underscore the sensitivity of sesame plants to water stress. Any reduction in water availability during the growing season can result in substantial yield losses compared to irrigated conditions. This emphasizes the critical importance of water management in sesame cultivation, as inadequate water supply during the growing period can drastically affect yield. Developing appropriate irrigation strategies is essential to minimize the negative impact of water restrictions on sesame production.

3.4. Total yield and yield per plant

The results of the experiment show that sesame yields varied based on the lateral depth of water application. The highest yields were obtained at the 30 cm lateral depth for treatments S1 and S2, while the lowest yields were observed at the 40 cm lateral depth for treatment S4 (Table 4). The phenomenon of germination within the capsules in treatments with full water application (S1) led to a yield reduction, highlighting the importance of considering the physiological characteristics of sesame plants when designing irrigation strategies. The grain yields reported in this study (156.4-237.0 kg da⁻¹) are comparable to those found in previous research by Naim et al. (2010) in Sudan (97.5-418.8 kg da⁻¹) and Anğın and Çatalkaya (2019) in Çukurova (112-253 kg da⁻¹). These findings suggest that sesame yields can vary significantly depending on environmental conditions, irrigation practices, and specific crop management techniques. Similarly, Baştuğ et al. (2016) conducted a two-year study under Antalya conditions, investigating sesame as a second crop under lysimeter conditions. In their research, drip irrigation treatments yielded 207–75.7 kg da⁻¹, furrow irrigation produced 216 kg da⁻¹, and non-irrigated conditions yielded 40.7 kg da⁻¹ in the first year. In the second year, the yields were 201.3–64.7 kg da⁻¹ for drip irrigation, 206.4 kg da⁻¹ for furrow irrigation, and 30.3 kg da⁻¹ for non-irrigated conditions. In another study, Derviş (1986) reported the grain yield of second crop sesame as 166.8 kg da⁻¹ in the Çukurova region. Similarly, El-Lattief (2015) in Southern Egypt, working on sandy soils, reported that the highest yield of 154.1 kg da⁻¹ was achieved with irrigation intervals of seven days, while the lowest yield of 109.1 kg da⁻¹ was observed with 11-day irrigation intervals. Hailu et al. (2018), in a three-year study conducted in Ethiopia using furrow irrigation, obtained grain yields ranging from 116.4 to 139.2 kg da⁻¹. The yield differences observed in these studies compared to the current research can be attributed to various factors, including climate conditions, differences in irrigation schedules, and the cultivation of sesame as a second crop. For example, the climate in Antalya may be more favorable for sesame growth compared to other regions, leading to higher yields. Additionally, the specific irrigation schedules used in each study can influence crop performance. Finally, cultivating sesame as a second crop can introduce unique challenges and opportunities that may affect yields.

The yield per plant in 2019 and 2020 is presented in Table 6. The study presented yield per plant data for sesame in 2019 and 2020 (Table 4.7). In both years, yields ranged from 0.086 to 0.237 kg per plant, with the highest yields consistently observed in the 40 cm lateral depth S2 treatment. In contrast, the rainfed treatment (S4) consistently yielded the least. The yield of main crop Muganlı 57 sesame variety with two irrigation events was 223 kg da⁻¹ and 282 kg da⁻¹ in the first and second year, respectively (Tan, 2011). Similarly, Öz (2017) reported seed yields ranging from 103.5 to 198.9 kg da⁻¹ for sesame grown as a main crop. Arslan et al. (2014) reported that the yield of the Muganlı 57 sesame variety in different locations in Şanlıurfa province varied between 20.7 and 81.4 kg da⁻¹, while the Arslanbey variety yielded between 111.2 and 154.8 kg da⁻¹. Bakal and Arıoğlu (2013) reported a yield of 112.9 kg da⁻¹ for the Muganlı 57 variety in Adana, while Baydar et al. (1999) recorded a yield of 89.2 kg da⁻¹ for the same variety. These variations in yield can be attributed to factors such as location, irrigation practices, and the cultivation method (whether as a main or second crop). Derviş (1981) reported a yield of 164 kg da⁻¹ for main crop sesame under Çukurova conditions in Turkiye. Ahmed and Mahmoud (2010) showed that sesame yield ranged between 418 and 89 kg da⁻¹, depending on the amount of irrigation water applied. Similarly, Sondarva et al. (2014) noted the highest yield of 99.1 kg da⁻¹ with drip irrigation. The yields in this study were lower than those reported by Kassab et al. (2005), Baştuğ et al. (2016), and Tan (2011), but closer to those reported by Derviş (1981) and Boydak et al. (2007).

Table 6. Sesame Yields for the Treatments

Year	Depth (cm)	Treatments	Yield (kg da^-1)	Yield (kg plant^-1)
Year	Depth (cm)	Treatments	Mean	Mean
2019	20	S₁	180.7	0.181
		S₂	210.6	0.211
		S₃	158.8	0.159
		S₄	86.4	0.086
	30	S₁	156.4	0.156
		S₂	179.2	0.179
		S₃	125.6	0.126
		S₄	87.8	0.088
	40	S₁	184.4	0.184
		S₂	237.0	0.237
		S₃	138.6	0.139
		S₄	85.6	0.086
2020	20	S₁	178.3	0.178
		S₂	208.1	0.208
		S₃	155.8	0.156
		S₄	85.1	0.085
	30	S₁	152.4	0.152
		S₂	177.8	0.178
		S₃	129.8	0.130
		S₄	85.5	0.086
	40	S₁	180.1	0.180
		S₂	232.3	0.232
		S₃	127.4	0.127
		S₄	84.5	0.085

The severity of drought significantly impacts sesame yield and number of capsules per plant (Mensah et al., 2009). For instance, Kadkhodaie et al. (2014b) observed that drought stress reduces sesame yield. Additionally, Kadkhodaie and colleagues (2014a, 2014c) and Kim et al. (2007) found that drought and genotypic differences in sesame varieties contribute to yield reduction. Karaaslan et al. (2007) and Jouyban and Moosavi (2012) observed significant yield decreases in sesame varieties with irrigation intervals of 18 and 12 days, respectively. Boydak et al. (2007) emphasized the significant impact of irrigation method on sesame yield reduction, finding that sprinkler irrigation at intervals of 18 or 24 days decreased yield. Uçan and Killi (2010) reported that increasing irrigation intervals, leading to drought, reduced the number of flowers and capsules, significantly lowering seed weight and overall yield (Kim et al., 2007). Alizadeh (2002) indicated that sesame is particularly sensitive to drought during its seed-filling stage.

In irrigation water calculations, a ground cover percentage of 35% was assumed for initial irrigations, as the actual coverage was below this threshold. Once the cover percentage (Pc) exceeded 35%, measured values were used (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). Pc was determined by the dividing the shaded area of row plants by the row spacing (70 cm). Measurements were consistently taken from the same three plants before each irrigation,. The measured Pc values for the experimental treatments over both years are presented in Figure 14. Plant growth was weaker in the second year due to lower May and June temperatures. Doorenbos and Kassam (1979) found that Pc increases with temperature during mid-growth but stabilizes and declines later. In the first year, Pc was 84% for the S1 at 20 cm lateral depth, 81% for at 30 cm, and 82% at 40 cm. For the second year, corresponding values were 81%, 79%, and 80%. The 20 cm laterals facilitated earlier root access to soil moisture, contributing to higher Pc values.

Goldberg et al. (1976) determined the Pc of sesame plants to be 80% and found a positive linear relationship between ET values and Pc. The development of sesame cover is directly correlated to water and nutrient utilization, making it a crucial factor in maximum sesame yield (Çalışkan et al., 2004; Emberson et al., 2018). Plant cover significantly infleunces plant water consumption; as the Pc increases, the amount of transpiration from the plant also rises (Çetin et al., 2013). Sesame yield is a function of several factors: plant density, the number of branches per plant, the number of capsules per plant, the number of seeds per capsule, and seed weight. These relationships show a significant increase with the development of plant cover (Lakew et al., 2018). In a two-year study by Gerçek et al. (2004) in Şanlıurfa province, Turkiye, plant height values ranged from 95 to 112 cm under sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. These variations can be attributed to differences in plant variety, climatic factors, and irrigation programs.

3.5. Yield Quality Parameters

The study found a significant relationship between irrigation levels and seed oil content in sesame. Seed oil content varied between 50.8% and 53.9% in the first year, with the highest content (53.9%) observed in the S4 treatment at a 30 cm lateral depth under rainfed conditions (Table 7). The lowest average seed oil content (50.8%) was noted in the S2 irrigation treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth. In the second year, the seed oil content range was slightly narrower, fluctuating between 49.8% and 53.5%. The highest oil content (53.5%) was again found in the S2 treatment at a 30 cm lateral depth, while the lowest average oil content (49.8%) was observed in the S3 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth (Figure 15). These findings indicate a significant relationship between irrigation levels and seed oil content, highlighting the importance of appropriate irrigation strategies in optimizing oil yield in the studied treatments

Table 7. Seed oil percentages for the treatments

Year	Depth	Treatments	OP	PA	POA	SA	OA	LA	LNA	AA	11-EA
Year	(cm)	Treatments	OP	PA	POA	SA	OA	LA	LNA	AA	11-EA
2019	20	S₁	51.0	9.1	0.1	4.7	43.4	41.6	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	52.5	9.1	0.1	4.8	42.5	42.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	51.5	9.2	0.1	4.8	43.3	41.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	51.1	9.1	0.1	4.9	43.1	41.7	0.3	0.5	0.2
	30	S₁	52.7	9.0	0.1	5.0	43.9	41.0	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	52.0	9.0	0.1	5.1	44.3	40.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	17.1	8.9	0.1	5.0	44.2	40.8	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	53.9	9.1	0.1	4.9	42.7	42.1	0.3	0.5	0.2
	40	S₁	52.3	9.0	0.1	5.2	45.3	39.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	50.8	9.2	0.1	4.9	43.3	41.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	52.7	9.0	0.1	5.1	45.4	39.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	51.8	8.9	0.1	5.2	44.3	40.6	0.3	0.5	0.2
2020	20	S₁	50.4	9.1	0.1	4.7	43.4	41.6	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	51.9	9.1	0.1	4.8	42.5	42.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	50.9	9.2	0.1	4.8	43.3	41.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	50.5	9.1	0.1	4.9	43.1	41.7	0.3	0.5	0.2
	30	S₁	52.1	9.0	0.1	5.0	43.9	41.0	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	53.5	9.0	0.1	5.1	44.3	40.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	52.1	8.9	0.1	5.0	44.2	40.8	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	51.5	9.1	0.1	4.9	42.7	42.1	0.3	0.5	0.2
	40	S₁	50.4	9.0	0.1	5.2	45.3	39.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₂	50.3	9.2	0.1	4.9	43.3	41.5	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₃	49.8	9.0	0.1	5.1	45.4	39.4	0.3	0.5	0.2
		S₄	51.9	8.9	0.1	5.2	44.3	40.6	0.3	0.5	0.2

OP: Oil percentage, POA: palmiteloik asit, PA: Palmitic acid, SA: Stearic acid, OA: Oleic acid, LA: Linolenic acid, LNA: lineic acid, AA: Arasidic acid, 11-EA: 11-Eikosenoic acid.

The palmitic acid content demonstrated significant variation based on irrigation levels and lateral depths. The S2 irrigation treatment yielded the highest average palmitic acid content of 9.11%, while the S3 treatment exhibited the lowest at 8.99% (Table 7). Regarding lateral depths, the YAD irrigation method at a 20 cm lateral depth produced an average palmitic acid When examining the interaction between irrigation levels and lateral depths, the highest palmitic acid contents were observed in the S2 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth and in the S3 treatment at a 20 cm lateral depth. Conversely, the lowest values were recorded in the S3 treatment at a 30 cm lateral depth and in the S4 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth (Figure 16).

Irrigation levels and lateral depths significantly influenced stearic acid content in sesame. The S2 irrigation treatment yielded the highest average stearic acid content of 7.89%, while the S1 treatment exhibited the lowest at 4.95% (Table 7). Regarding lateral depths, subsurface drip irrigation at a 20 cm lateral depth produced an average stearic acid value of 4.81%, compared to 4.99% and 5.05% for 30 cm and 40 cm depths, respectively. The interaction between irrigation level and lateral depth revealed complex effects on stearic acid content. The highest values were observed in the S2 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth and in the S3 treatment at a 20 cm lateral depth. Conversely, the lowest values were recorded in the S3 treatment at a 30 cm lateral depth and in the S4 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth (Figure 17).

Irrigation regimes and lateral depths significantly influenced oleic acid content in sesame. The S2 and S1 treatments yielded the highest average oleic acid concentrations at 44.31% and 44.20%, respectively. Conversely, the S4 treatment exhibited the lowest average oleic acid concentration at 43.35% (Table 7). Regarding lateral depths, the subsurface drip irrigation method at a 20 cm lateral depth produced an average oleic acid value of 43.09%. The 30 cm and 40 cm lateral depths resulted in higher average values of 43.78% and 44.57%, respectively. The interaction between irrigation level and lateral depth also played a pivotal role in determining oleic acid content. The highest concentrations were observed in the S3 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth and in the S1 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth, reaching 45.44% and 45.28%, respectively. In contrast, the lowest oleic acid content was recorded at 42.52% in the S2 treatment at a 20 cm lateral depth (Figure 18).

Irrigation levels and lateral depths significantly influenced linoleic acid content in sesame. The S4 and S2 treatments yielded the highest average linoleic acid contents at 41.48% and 41.46%, respectively. Conversely, the S3 treatment exhibited the lowest average linoleic acid content at 40.60% (Table 7). Regarding lateral depths, the subsurface drip irrigation method at a 20 cm lateral depth produced an average linoleic acid value of 41.82%. The 30 cm and 40 cm lateral depths resulted in slightly lower average values of 41.10% and 40.25%, respectively. The interaction between irrigation level and lateral depth also played a role in determining linoleic acid content. The highest linoleic acid values were observed in the S2 treatment at a 20 cm lateral depth and in the S4 treatment at a 30 cm lateral depth, reaching 42.42% and 42.13%, respectively. In contrast, the lowest linoleic acid content was recorded at 39.44% in the S3 treatment at a 40 cm lateral depth (Figure 19).

Baştuğ et al. (2016) conducted a study in Antalya province, Turkiye under lysimeter conditions, utilizing drip irrigation. The highest oil content of 52.87% was observed in fully irrigated plots, while the lowest oil content of 44.76% was recorded in the dry treatment. Similarly, Ebrahimian et al. (2019) reported oil content levels ranging from 34.2% to 35.6% for sesame in their study conducted in Azerbaijan, which employed an A-class evaporation pan. The variations in oil content can be attributed to factors such as the specific variety of the sesame plant, climatic conditions, and differences in irrigation practices.

The fatty acid content in sesame varied significantly with different irrigation levels and lateral depths. Palmitic acid content ranged from 8.9% to 9.2%, stearic acid from 4.7% to 5.2%, oleic acid from 42.5% to 45.4%, and linoleic acid from 39.4% to 42.4% across both years of the study. A study conducted by Baydar and Turgut (2000) on the Muganlı-57 sesame variety reported oleic acid content at 41.98% and linoleic acid content at 41.64%. In another study by Baydar et al. (1999), the fixed oil content for the Muganlı-57 sesame variety was found to be 59.47%. Additionally, Baydar (2005) reported variations in fatty acid content across different sesame varieties, with fixed oil content ranging from 43.2% to 49.3%, palmitic acid from 9.4% to 8.1%, stearic acid from 5.6% to 6.1%, oleic acid from 41.3% to 48.4%, and linoleic acid from 36.6% to 43.1%.

In the present study, irrigation levels and lateral depths significantly influenced all fatty acids except palmitoleic, linolenic, arachidic, and 11-eicosenoic acids (p < 0.001). Eskandari et al. (2015) concluded that drought application up to 130 mm of evaporation had a negligible impact on sesame seed germination, 1000-seed weight, electrical conductivity, and seedling weight. Regarding other quality characteristics, Alpaslan et al. (2001) reported that the percentages of protein, oil, oleic acid, and linoleic acid in sesame seeds were negatively affected by irrigation intervals exceeding 18 days. Kadkhodaie et al. (2014a) noted that drought treatments reduced the percentages of oil, oleic acid, and linoleic acid in sesame seeds exposed to genotypic variation.

In a study conducted by Baydar and Turgut (2000), the oleic acid content in the Muganlı-57 sesame variety was determined to be 41.98%, while the linoleic acid content was found to be 41.64%. Additionally, Baydar et al. (1999) reported a fixed oil content of 59.47% for the same variety. Baydar (2005) further investigated fatty acid composition in various sesame varieties, observing fixed oil content ranging from 43.2% to 49.3%, palmitic acid from 9.4% to 8.1%, stearic acid from 5.6% to 6.1%, oleic acid from 41.3% to 48.4%, and linoleic acid from 36.6% to 43.1%.

The study evaluated the impact of irrigation levels and lateral depths on sesame cultivation using subsurface drip irrigation. Four treatments were applied: full irrigation, restricted irrigation, and rainfall-based production, with lateral depths of 20, 30, and 40 cm. Actual crop water consumption (ETc) was determined using the soil water budget. The recommended treatment for each lateral depth was S2, involving a 30% water restriction. Irrigation water applied to S2 in the first year was 255 mm at 20 cm, 228 mm at 30 cm, and 234 mm at 40 cm. In the second year, it was 229 mm at 20 cm, 184 mm at 30 cm, and 183 mm at 40 cm.

Plant water consumption for the recommended treatment (S2) varied slightly with lateral depth. In the first year, it ranged from 283 to 285 mm, with minimal differences between 20 cm, 30 cm, and 40 cm depths. In the second year, consumption decreased slightly to 288 mm at 20 cm, 276 mm at 30 cm, and 259 mm at 40 cm. Yields for the S2 treatment also varied with lateral depth. In 2019, yields were 210 kg ha⁻¹ at 20 cm, 179 kg ha⁻¹ at 30 cm, and 237 kg ha⁻¹ at 40 cm. In 2020, they were 208 kg ha⁻¹, 177 kg ha⁻¹, and 232 kg ha⁻¹, respectively

Full irrigation (S1) led to seed germination within capsules, resulting in yield loss. This suggests that restricted irrigation, as implemented in the S2 treatment, is more beneficial for sesame cultivation. The Ky parameter, indicating the relationship between water and yield, was calculated as 1.24. This value signifies sesame's sensitivity to water availability, emphasizing the importance of efficient irrigation practices.

Water use productivity (WUP) for the S2 treatment also varied with lateral depth. Averages were 7.3 kg ha⁻¹ mm at 20 cm, 6.3 kg ha⁻¹ mm at 30 cm, and 8.7 kg ha⁻¹ mm at 40 cm. Overall, WUP increased with the amount of irrigation water applied over the years, suggesting that sesame can effectively utilize additional water to improve yield.

Author Contribution

F.A. and B.C. took part in the evaluation of the data.F.A. wrote the main manuscript text.All authors reviewed the manuscript.

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No competing interests reported.

Determination of yield and water use productivity of sesame irrigated with subsurface drip irrigation under different water deficit conditions

Status:

Version 1

Abstract

Figures

1. Introduction

2. Material and methods

2.1. Study area and climate

2.2. Soil and Irrigation Water Characteristics

2.3. Plant Material, Fertilizer Applications, and Sowing

2.4. Irrigation Method and Installation

2.5. Evapotranspirasyon (ET), su üretkenliği (WUP), sulama suyu üretkenliği (IWUP) ve verim tepki faktörü (Ky)

2.6. Harvest, yield and statistical analysis

3. Results and discussion

4. Conclusion

Declarations

Author Contribution

References

Additional Declarations

Status:

Version 1