Preparation and characterization of the PBP-EVs
Based on the foundation of previous laboratory research, we designed PBP-EVs that can target the P-selectin which on surface of damaged endothelial cells (Fig. 1A). The peptide fragment (DAEWVDVS) serves as a P-selectin binding peptide (PBP), enabling specific targeting and binding to P-selectin (Fig. S1a). We synthesized DMPE-PEG-PBP (DPP) by conjugating PBP onto an amphiphilic substance, DMPE-PEG5000-maleimide (DMPE-PEG-MAL), to anchor the EV membrane (Fig. S1a). Subsequently, we utilized nuclear magnetic resonance to conduct one-dimensional hydrogen spectrum detection on the synthesized DPP product. The presence of characteristic peaks corresponding to the indole ring of PBP (7.0-7.6 ppm region) in the DPP product was observed, confirming successful conjugation of PBP onto DMPE-PEG (Fig. S1b). For subsequent visualization detection, the Cy5.5 fluorescent dye was conjugated to the amino groups on the side chains of PBP to obtain Cy5.5-labeled DPP. At room temperature, 5 µM of Cy5.5-labeled DPP with EVs were incubated for 30 minutes to obtain PBP-EVs (Fig. 1A). We characterized and compared the prepared PBP-EVs and EVs. The particle size detection results reveal that both EVs and PBP-EVs predominantly exhibit a size distribution around 100nm, with PBP-EVs displaying a slightly increased size after DPP modification compared to EVs (Fig. 1B). Membrane potential analysis indicated that both EVs and PBP-EVs carried a negative charge (Fig. 1C). Western blotting revealed that PBP-EVs retained the characteristic protein markers of EVs (Fig. 1D). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) demonstrated that both EVs and PBP-EVs exhibited vesicular structures (Fig. 1E). Subsequently, flow cytometry was utilized to assess EVs and labeling efficiency (Fig. 1F), revealing a labeling efficiency of over 90% for PBP-EVs (Fig. 1G). Simultaneously, PBP-EVs can be stably preserved for over one week at 4℃ (Fig. 1H and S1c, d). These findings collectively indicate that we successfully prepared and preserved PBP-EVs for subsequent experiments without compromising the physicochemical properties of EVs.
PBP-EVs can target and repair damaged renal endothelial cells
P-selectin is an inflammatory cell adhesion molecule expressed on ECs, typically at low levels under normal conditions. Upon endothelial cell injury, P-selectin can recruit leukocytes and platelets, and its expression is positively correlated with the pathophysiological progression of various injuries[26, 27]. These characteristics suggest that P-selectin may be a reliable target for the targeted delivery of exosomes to injured sites. Given the critical association between ECs and the immune microenvironment, and the role of P-selectin in pathological injury targeting, we successfully prepared PBP-EVs, which target injured ECs. Our findings indicate that PBP-EVs can target and ameliorate ECs injury, promote the recruitment of Tregs, and restore the immune microenvironment.
To further visualize PBP-EVs in subsequent experiments, we employed the bioluminescent Gaussia luciferase (Gluc) lactadherin fusion proteins report system to obtain Gluc/Cy5.5-labeled EVs and PBP-EVs (Fig. S2a, b, c). Mice underwent 12 h of renal IRI, followed by tail vein injection of 100µg of Gluc/Cy5.5-labeled EVs or PBP-EVs. At 2, 6, 12, and 24 h post-injection, Gluc imaging demonstrated significantly higher signal intensity in the renal region for PBP-EVs compared to EVs, indicating the strong targeting capability of PBP-EVs to injured kidneys in vivo (Fig. S2d, e). Concurrently, Cy5.5 fluorescence imaging revealed higher Cy5.5 fluorescence signals in the kidneys of the PBP-EVs group than in the EVs group, suggesting that PBP-EVs specifically target injured renal tissues (Fig. 2A-C). Kidney tissues injected with Cy5.5-labeled EVs and PBP-EVs were cryosectioned for immunofluorescence analysis. The results showed a significant increase in the accumulation of PBP-EVs in the injured kidneys compared to the EVs group (Fig. 2D), with a predominant distribution in renal endothelial cells (Fig. 2E). Subsequent in vitro experiments further confirmed these findings, demonstrating greater adhesion of PBP-EVs to H/R injured endothelial cells when co-cultured with Cy5.5/Gluc-labeled EVs and PBP-EVs (Fig. 2F and S2f, g, h). These results indicate that PBP-EVs can specifically target damaged renal endothelial cells both in vivo and in vitro, compared to EVs.
We further investigated the reparative effects of EVs and PBP-EVs on endothelial cells. Using vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (Vegfr2)-Fluc mice, we established a renal IRI model to dynamically track angiogenesis in injured kidneys in real-time via
bioluminescence imaging. Mice subjected to 12 hours of IRI were injected via the tail vein with either EVs or PBP-EVs. The results showed that bioluminescence signals (Fluc) were consistently higher in the PBP-EVs group compared to the EVs group at 3, 7, 10, and 14 days post-injection, indicating enhanced angiogenesis in the injured kidneys mediated by PBP-EVs (Fig. 2G, H). Additionally, real-time qPCR revealed significantly elevated expression levels of angiogenesis-related genes Vegfα, Vegfr2, Ang1, and Ang2 in the PBP-EVs group compared to the EVs group, suggesting that PBP-EVs possess a strong capacity to promote angiogenesis (Fig. 2I). The above research findings demonstrated that PBP-EVs exhibits effective targeting and repair capabilities for renal endothelial cells.
Transcriptomic sequencing indicated that PBP-EVs reduced the expression levels of inflammatory genes which associated with renal regeneration
ECs are crucial components of the circulatory system. Interestingly, ECs and immune cells share a common ancestor, directly supporting the important role of ECs in immune responses[16, 28, 29]. Research indicates that vascular ECs can regulate inflammation by modulating the trafficking, activation status, and function of immune cells[30, 31].
Given the close relationship between endothelial cells and the immune microenvironment, we utilized transcriptomic sequencing to observe changes in inflammatory genes in the kidneys across different groups. The quality assessment of sequencing data and the Fragments Per Kilobase of transcript sequence per Millions base pairs sequenced (FPKM) density distribution for each group are as follows (Fig. S3a-c). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed significant clustering overlap between the PBP-EVs group and the Sham group, suggesting fewer differentially expressed genes between these two groups. In contrast, the PBP-EVs group and the PBS group are likely to have a greater number of differentially expressed genes (Fig. 3A). The Pearson correlation coefficient heatmap represents the degree of correlation in gene expression levels between samples. A correlation coefficient closer to 1 indicates a higher similarity in expression patterns between samples. The heatmap shows that the PBP-EVs group has a higher similarity in gene expression patterns with the Sham group. In contrast, the PBP-EVs group exhibited lower similarity with the PBS group (Fig. S3d). Furthermore, trend clustering analysis demonstrated consistent gene expression trends between the PBP-EVs and Sham groups, with trends opposite to those observed in the PBS group (Fig. 3B).
Then we compared the number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) among the groups. A bar chart depicting the number of DEGs showed that, compared to the PBS group, there were 2911 DEGs in the PBP-EVs group, with 1768 upregulated and 1143 downregulated genes (Fig. 3C). In the EVs group compared to the PBS group, there were 479 DEGs, with 352 upregulated and 127 downregulated genes (Fig. 3C). Compared to the Sham group, the PBS group had 4042 DEGs, with 1864 upregulated and 2178 downregulated genes (Fig. 3C). UpSet and Venn diagrams further illustrated the common DEGs among the different comparison groups (Fig. S3e, f). Clustering of DEGs was performed to assess the variations in gene expression between different groups. The hierarchical clustering heatmap of differentially expressed genes between comparison groups shows that the PBP-EVs group clusters more closely with the Sham group and less closely with the PBS group (Fig. 3D).
Volcano plots visually displayed the distribution and expression changes of DEGs between two groups. Compared to the PBS group, genes such as Anxa2, Anxa3, Ankrd1, Akr1b8, and Krt18 were downregulated in the PBP-EVs group, while Hpd, Rdh16f2, Atp4a, Slc4a1, and Car3 were upregulated (Fig. 3E). Compared to the Sham group, the PBS group had upregulated genes including Havcr1, Tnfrsf12a, Fgb, Clu, and Lgals3, and downregulated genes such as Acmsd, Egf, Al314278, Slc34a3, and Pvalb (S4a). Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) indicated that DEGs between the PBP-EVs and PBS groups were enriched in inflammation-related pathways such as the NOD-like receptor signaling pathway (hsa04621) and the fibrin complement receptor 3 signaling pathway (WP4136) (Fig. 3F). Additionally, compared to the PBS group, PBP-EVs suppressed these inflammation-related pathways. Compared to the Sham group, the PBS group upregulated inflammation-related pathways such as overview of proinflammatory and profibrotic mediators (WP5095) and nod like receptor signaling pathway (hsa04621) (Fig. S4b).
KEGG pathway analysis showed that, compared to PBS, the top 20 downregulated pathways in the PBP-EVs group included numerous inflammation-related pathways such as TNF signaling, NF-kappa B signaling, IL-17 signaling, cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, and apoptosis and cellular senescence pathways (Fig. 3G). Additionally, compared to the Sham group, the PBS group upregulated inflammation-related pathways (Fig. S4c). Conversely, the top 20 upregulated pathways in the PBP-EVs group included pathways related to cell proliferation and renal regeneration and repair, such as the PPAR signaling pathway and the cAMP signaling pathway (Fig. S5a). Heatmap analysis of genes related to these pathways revealed that, compared to the PBS group, the PBP-EVs group exhibited decreased expression of inflammation, apoptosis and senescence-related genes and increased expression of genes related to cell proliferation and renal regeneration and repair (Fig. 3H and S5b). Using the STRING protein-protein interaction database, the analysis of differential gene protein interaction network revealed that inflammation is closely related to cell proliferation, apoptosis, and organ regeneration (Fig. 3I and S5c).
These findings suggested that PBP-EVs reduced the expression of renal inflammatory genes which related to promote renal regeneration and cell proliferation in AKI.
PBP-EVs reduce the generation of renal pro-inflammatory immune cells and cytokines
We subsequently validated the transcriptomic sequencing results by examining the levels of pro-inflammatory immune cells and cytokines in the kidney. Real-time qPCR results indicated that, compared to the PBS group, the PBP-EVs group and the EVs group exhibited reduced levels of pro-inflammatory genes TNF-α, IL-6, and TGF-β in the kidney, while the anti-inflammatory gene IL-10 was elevated (Fig. 4A). Moreover, the anti-inflammatory capability of the PBP-EVs group was superior to that of the EVs group. Immunofluorescence staining of renal CD45+ cells and myeloperoxidase (MPO) assays revealed that PBP-EVs reduced leukocyte infiltration in the injured kidneys (Fig. 4B, C). Further flow cytometry analysis identified the types and proportions of pro-inflammatory immune cells in the kidney. The results showed that, compared to the PBS group, the PBP-EVs group had a lower proportion of neutrophils in the kidneys of mice (Fig. 4D, E and S6a). PBP-EVs reduced the proportion of iNOS+ pro-inflammatory M1 macrophages and increased the proportion of CD206+ anti-inflammatory M2 macrophages in the injured kidneys (Fig. 4F-H and S6b, c). Additionally, PBP-EVs reduced the proportion of monocytes in the injured kidneys, particularly the proportion of intermediate monocytes and non-classical monocyte subtypes (Fig. 4I, J and S6d).
In summary, PBP-EVs decreases the levels of inflammatory cells and cytokines in injured kidneys, exhibiting superior anti-inflammatory capabilities compared to EVs.
PBP-EVs promote the accumulation of Tregs in the kidney following IRI
Tregs, characterized by the expression of the X chromosome-encoded transcription factor Foxp3, represent a distinct lineage of T lymphocytes [32]. Their critical function is to suppress T cell responses to self-antigens, commensal microbiota, dietary, and environmental antigens [33]. In addition to mitigating tissue damage by suppressing post-infection inflammatory responses, Tregs can facilitate tissue repair through mechanisms such as attenuating the pro-inflammatory responses of cells in the innate and adaptive immune systems, and reducing endothelial cell activation[34]. The blunted recruitment and responsiveness of inflammatory cells reduce the positive feedback loop mediated by activated T cells and promote the transition from inflammation to tissue repair processes. Studies have also shown that Tregs can directly contribute to tissue repair by producing amphiregulin[35]. Consequently, when tissues and organs are damaged, circulating or resident Tregs are rapidly recruited or expanded, thereby promoting tissue repair[36]. So, as crucial immunosuppressive cells within the body, Tregs play a significant role in regulating the immune microenvironment and tissue repair.
Although Tregs constitute a small proportion of lymphocytes and are at a numerical disadvantage, they can migrate rapidly and efficiently to target tissues. The levels of adhesion molecules and chemokines are insufficient to support their robust migratory capacity [37]. Studies have shown that the expression of antigens by ECs is an essential condition for the recruitment of Tregs [18].
We employed Foxp3-GFP transgenic mice to trace Tregs and subsequently used TPM for in vivo observation of the effects of PBP-EVs on renal Tregs (Fig. S7a). Flow cytometry was utilized to comparatively analyze Tregs in the kidneys of wild-type and Foxp3-GFP transgenic mice, revealing a strong GFP signal in the kidneys of Foxp3-GFP transgenic mice, which was undetectable in wild-type mice (Fig. S7b).
As depicted in the experimental flowchart, we established a renal IRI model in Foxp3-GFP transgenic mice, followed by the administration of PBP-EVs, EVs, or PBS (Fig. 5A). On the third day, TPM was employed to observe the distribution of Tregs in the kidneys of each group. We observed that PBP-EVs promoted the recruitment of Tregs to the injured kidneys, with a higher recruitment rate compared to the EVs group (Fig. 5B and Videos S1, S2, S3, S4). Immunofluorescence staining of renal sections from each group also demonstrated that PBP-EVs facilitated the accumulation of Tregs in the kidneys (Fig. 5C). Flow cytometry analysis further indicated that the proportion and number of Tregs in the kidneys were increased in the PBP-EVs group compared to the PBS group (Fig. 5D, E). In vitro experiment, we isolated Tregs from Foxp3-GFP mice and co-cultured them with hypoxia-induced injured endothelial cells on transwells. The experimental results indicated that, compared to the PBS group, PBP-EVs increased the migration of Tregs (Fig. S7c, d).
In summary, PBP-EVs enhanced the recruitment of Tregs to the kidneys following IRI, exhibiting superior recruitment capabilities compared to the PBS and EVs group.
PBP-EVs promote the proliferation of renal Lgr5+ stem cells
In adult mammals, the regenerative capacity of tissues and organs is limited. Tissue regeneration involves multiple complex steps and the participation of various cell sources, among which the proliferation of endogenous stem cells is considered the most promising strategy for tissue regeneration[5]. Increasing evidence suggests that endogenous stem cells can interact with the extracellular matrix, soluble cytokines, and cellular signals to promote tissue damage repair[38]. Lgr5, also known as leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor 5, is an important membrane protein and a crucial regulator of intracellular signal transduction. Recent studies have identified Lgr5+ cells as homeostatic stem cells in various tissues, including the kidney, hair follicles, and intestine [39]. In neonatal and young mice, Lgr5 contributes to kidney development, is activated in response to ischemic kidney injury, and aids in vascular repair following acute kidney injury [40].Currently, Lgr5+ stem cells are believed to represent a type of endogenous stem cell within kidney tissue capable of participating in tissue damage repair. In this study, we found that PBP-EVs not only ameliorated pathological damage to the kidneys in AKI and reduced renal fibrosis but also promoted the proliferation of Lgr5+ stem cells.
Given the close relationship between the immune microenvironment and renal regeneration, we next investigated the effects of PBP-EVs on renal regeneration and repair. We used Lgr5-CreERT2; R26mTmG mice to label renal stem cells, administering tamoxifen (100 mg/kg daily, 3 times a week) a week prior to the experiment (Fig. S8a, b). Subsequently, an IRI model was established, and the mice were treated with PBP-EVs, EVs, or PBS. Fourteen days later, TPM was used to observe the activation and proliferation of renal stem cells in each group. The experimental workflow is shown in the schematic (Fig. S8b).
In vivo observations using TPM revealed that PBP-EVs increased the number of Lgr5+ renal stem cells in the injured kidneys (Fig. 6A and Videos S5-1, S5-2, S6-1, S6-2, S7-1, S7-2, S8-1, S8-2). Immunofluorescence staining of the kidneys also indicated that PBP-EVs promoted the proliferation of Lgr5+ renal stem cells, with a more pronounced effect than the EVs group (Fig. 6B, C).
In conclusion, we found that PBP-EVs can enhance the activation and proliferation of Lgr5+ renal stem cells, thereby promoting the regeneration of injured kidneys.
PBP-EVs alleviate mice renal IRI
We further investigated the effect of PBP-EVs on renal repair following injury. The results showed that compared to the PBS group, both PBP-EVs and EVs reduced serum creatinine (SCr) and blood urea nitrogen (BUN) in IRI mice, with PBP-EVs exhibiting superior efficacy over EVs (Fig. 7A, B). Hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and kidney injury molecule 1 (Kim1) immunofluorescence staining indicated that PBP-EVs alleviated the severity of IRI kidney and restored renal pathological structure (Fig. 7C, D). Masson staining and α-SMA immunofluorescence staining demonstrated that, compared to the PBS group, PBP-EVs reduced the degree of fibrosis in the kidneys of IRI mice (Fig. 7E, F). Additionally, caspase3 immunofluorescence staining showed that PBP-EVs decreased apoptosis in damaged renal cells (Fig. S9a). Real-time qPCR results revealed that PBP-EVs significantly reduced the expression of apoptosis-related genes (Bax, Bad, Fasl, and Fas) as well as renal injury markers (Kim1, Ngal, Nphs1, and Nphs2) (Fig. 7G, H and S9b).
In conclusion, PBP-EVs can promote the repair of renal injury, reduce fibrosis and cell apoptosis in the kidneys, and is more effective than EVs.
The knockdown of Tregs reduces the protective effects of PBP-EVs on AKI
Studies have shown that Tregs depletion exacerbates histological damage and delays tubular regeneration in kidney of IRI mice; conversely, the infusion of Tregs into IRI mice can effectively suppress the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IFN-γ and promote renal repair [13]. In this study, we depleted Tregs in Foxp3-GFP transgenic mice with diphtheria toxin and found that the PBP-EVs + DT group exhibited exacerbated renal pathological damage and fibrosis, as well as diminished renal regeneration and repair. These findings are consistent with previous research results.
To further elucidate that PBP-EVs enhance renal regeneration by ameliorating endothelial cell damage and consequently modulating Tregs, we utilized Foxp3-DTR transgenic mice to knockdown Tregs and observed the effects of PBP-EVs on injured kidneys. The schematic and experimental workflow are as shown (Fig. 8A and S10a). We found that following Tregs knockdown, the expression levels of pro-inflammatory genes TGF-β, IL-6, and TNF-α were elevated, while the anti-inflammatory gene IL-10 expression level was reduced in both the PBS + DT and PBP-EVs + DT groups, indicating an exacerbation of the inflammatory response (Fig. 8B). Compared to the PBS and PBP-EVs groups, the SCr and BUN levels were elevated in the PBS + DT and PBP-EVs + DT groups, suggesting worsened renal injury upon Tregs knockdown (Fig. 8C). Furthermore, H&E staining revealed increased pathological damage in the PBP-EVs + DT group compared to the PBP-EVs group, indicating that the renal reparative effect of PBP-EVs was diminished after Tregs knockdown (Fig. 8D). α-SMA immunofluorescence staining and Masson staining demonstrated elevated renal fibrosis levels in the PBS + DT and PBP-EVs + DT groups compared to the PBS and PBP-EVs groups after Tregs knockdown (Fig. 8E). Concurrently, after Tregs depletion, the expression levels of apoptosis and kidney injury-related genes increased, while the regeneration of Lgr5+ renal stem cells decreased in the PBS + DT and PBP-EVs + DT groups, suggesting a reduction in the renal repair effect of PBP-EVs (Fig. S10b-d).
In summary, the knockdown of Tregs in IRI mice led to an exacerbated inflammatory response, disruption of the immune microenvironment, reduced regeneration of Lgr5+ renal stem cells, and weakened therapeutic effects of PBP-EVs on IRI.