Alarming nutritional profile of a collegiate men’s field hockey team of University of Delhi: Reasons why a sports team may fail in competition

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5277226/v1

Purpose

Performance in Field hockey (FH) can be optimized with Sports Nutrition. Unfortunately, available studies have reported nutritional deficiencies in the players which may significantly affect their competitive performance and ultimately sports career. The study recruited a collegiate men's FH team (n=16) of University of Delhi (DU) to assess their total daily energy expenditure (TDEE) and nutritional profile of macronutrients and water intake during the University’s FH championship 2017-18.

Methods

Data was collected through 3 days activity and dietary recall forms, and assessments were done using factorial estimation method and DietCal software. For analyses, Shapiro-Wilk test was applied to all variables for normality testing and finally, the measures of mean, median, standard deviation, and percentage for descriptive analyses; and student’s t-test, Wilcoxon signed-rank test, along with Cohen’s dand Pearson’s r effect size tests for inferential analyses were applied to compare the players’ profile with their competitive requirements.

Results

Student’s t-test indicated a significant state of negative energy balance (p-value = 0.00005; α = <0.05; d = 0.8). Furthermore, Wilcoxon signed-rank tests revealed significant deficiencies of carbohydrate (p-value = 0.00001; α = <0.05; r = -1.04); protein (p-value = 0.00001; α = <0.05; r = -1.04); water upon awakening on match days (p-value = 0.00009; α = <0.05; r = -0.93); water 20-30 minutes before matches (p-value = 0.001; α = <0.05; r = -0.83); and water during matches (p-value = 0.0006; α = <0.05; r = -0.79). Only the fat intake was found to be marginally sufficient (p-value = 0.05; α = <0.05; r = -0.40).

Conclusion

The reported nutritional deficiencies might have contributed to the team’s poor performance and failure in the championship. Regular and personalized dietary assistance to the players is warranted to ensure their peak performance, top results in the future championships, and a successful sports career.

Nutrition & Dietetics

Field hockey

Sports nutritional profile

Intercollegiate championship

Energy balance

Macronutrients

Water

1.1. Field Hockey

Field Hockey (FH) has a history of being categorized as a highly aerobic team game.³⁶ However, in 2014, the overall game length for international FH was lowered from 70 minutes to 60 minutes, and the game’s structure was modified from two 35-minute halves to four 15-minute quarters²⁴ which resulted in changing the activity profile of players from highly aerobic to high-intensity intermittent.^{23, 26, 32, 35, 40} Accordingly, recent data has shown that the new regulations have caused the elite domestic male hockey players to cover 5,986 ± 1,105 meters in a mean playing time of 52 ± 11 minutes, giving a relative total distance of 116 ± 12 meters/minute. On average, the players have been observed to walk for 38% (2,246 ± 590 m) of their total distance (TD), jog for 44% (2,660 ± 552 m) of their TD, run for 16% (979 ± 272 m) of their TD, and sprint for 2% (90 ± 56 m) of their TD.⁴¹ Furthermore, considering positional activity patterns, Defenders have been found to cover the greatest overall distance throughout a game.^{41, 58} However, it has been reported that Defenders (105 ± 13 m/min.) complete considerably less relative TD than Attackers (120 ± 10 m/min.) and Midfielders (120 ± 9 m/min.),⁴⁷ which is consistent with research done after the rule modification.⁴³ The data has consistently showed that Attackers travel more high-speed distance than both Midfielders and Defenders, with Attackers covering 1,104 ± 261 meters, Midfielders: 1,104 ± 261 meters, Defenders: 865 ± 361 meters, and Band 5 (Attackers: 109 ± 62 meters, Midfielders: 84 ± 45 meters, Defenders: 84 ± 45 meters) velocities.⁴³ According to several studies,^{23, 58, 43} the data suggests that Attackers often conduct the highest amount of high intensity activity during FH games. These outcomes are probably the consequence of positional duties,⁶⁵ and these statistics imply that the players may now have a higher nutritional needs, including optimum energy, macronutrients, micronutrients, and fluids to ensure their peak performance in the competition period (CP).

1.2. Sports and Exercise Nutrition

1.2.1. Importance

The role of nutrition counseling and dietary assistance in CP is evident in terms of: 1) ensuring optimum health^{8, 9} and wellness^{45, 17}; 2) ensuring peak performance^{29, 61, 25}; 3) assisting in injury rehabilitation^{49, 48}; and 4) managing Stress,⁶ Anxiety,⁴⁶ and Depression⁶ which all may significantly affect the performance of players during the CP.

1.2.2. Energy in Competition Period

To maximize performance, players must ensure that their calorie intake balances their energy expenditure.⁴ While data on energy requirements specific to CP of FH is unavailable, it is a common understanding among the sports nutritionists to ensure an energy intake which is at least equivalent to the energy expenditure of a sportsperson on a typical match day. To assess the TDEE of a complete match day, a nutritionist may record all the physical activities and their duration in hours to assess the TDEE of 24 hours by using the Factorial Estimation Method.²⁰

1.2.3. Macronutrients in Competition Period

1.2.3.1. Carbohydrate

FH players primarily rely on carbohydrate during the high intensity play.⁶⁶ It is well established that optimizing carbohydrate intake may ensure high carbohydrate oxidation rate enabling the players to maintain high intensity throughout the play, without exhausting their muscle glycogen¹⁰ and liver glycogen.¹⁶ It is interesting that even after years of research and development, a recommended dietary allowance of carbohydrates specific to the CP of FH is yet to be established. However, a recommendation of 6–10 gm/kg body weight/day of carbohydrates has been recommended for moderate-high intensity physical activities lasting for 1–3 hours/day^{5, 30, 2} which is similar to the activity profile of a FH match day.

1.2.3.2. Protein

At times, players may tertiarily catabolise protein,⁴² as in case of low glycogen level and prolonged high intensity intermittent activity. It has also been reported that optimizing protein intake, along with carbohydrates, may offset muscle damage and reduce the feeling of muscle soreness among endurance sportspersons.^{52, 53, 50} Similar to carbohydrates, a recommended dietary allowance of proteins specific to the CP of FH is also yet to be established. However, the recommendation of 1.4–1.7 gm/kg body weight/day of proteins in sportspersons engaging in intermittent activities⁷ is also applicable to FH.^{23, 26, 32, 35, 40}

1.2.3.3. Fat

When players intermittently reduce their intensity during a match, as when the ball is not in their possession, they secondarily rely on their body fat.^{31, 27} Similar to carbohydrates and proteins, a recommended dietary allowance of fats specific to the CP of FH is also yet to be established. However, a recommendation of around 20–35% of total energy intake is worldwide accepted for most of the sportspersons,⁶¹ including endurance sportspersons,⁵⁵ which should translate to 1.0-1.5 gm/kg body weight/day of total fats. However, in case of a very high activity profile, as in case of participating in a match and sports training session on the same day, an intake up to 50% of total energy intake can also be safely considered.^{63 29}

1.2.4. Water in Competition Period

Water loss through sweat has been reported to be 0.5-2.0 liters/hour in a variety of sports,^{29, 1} including sports similar to FH such as 1.1 liter/hour in soccer during winter season,³⁹ 1.5 liter/hour in soccer in summer season,⁵⁷ and 2.1 liter/hour in American Football in summer season.¹⁵ Before a competition, sportspersons may ensure ideal hydration by consuming 500 mL of water or sports drinks a night before the competition, an additional 500 mL upon awakening, an additional 400–600 mL of chilled water or sports drink 20–30 minutes prior to the start of physical activity,²⁹ and try to consume as much water as it is required to maintain their body weight during match play. For this, measuring weights before and after a practice match may allow the sportspersons to understand their individualistic requirements which can be fulfilled in the main CP. Additionally, as cold beverages (10°C to 15°C) have been reported to increase fluid intake over time and enhance performance by 10%,³ the players are recommended to ensure the same.

2.1. Ethical approval

This research involved repeated observational design that was approved by the Department of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University of Delhi. All participants gave their written informed consent and volunteered to participate.

2.2. Study participants

The study recruited an entire collegiate men's FH team (n=16) of DU to assess their nutritional profile in the University’s FH championship 2017-18.

2.3. Measures

2.3.1. Demographic variables

The team players were provided with a Demographic form on which they specified their Chronological age in years (Table 1).

2.3.2. Sports variables

The team players were provided with a Sports from on which they specified their Experience in hockey in years; Level in hockey as specified as National, State, All India University, and Collegiate; College education in FH as specified as yes or no; and College education in sports nutrition as specified as yes or no (Table 1).

2.3.3. Anthropometric variables

To measure the height of team players, they were gathered in the Anatomy & Physiology Lab of the Indira Gandhi Institute of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, DU, and a standardized anthropometric rod was used by a lab assistant to measure their values in cm which were recorded in their anthropometric forms. To assess their body weight, each player was provided with a standardized portable weighing machine and the players were guided to use it early in the morning empty stomach while wearing minimum clothes. The players were also requested to record their measured values in kg up to one decimal point on their anthropometric forms. The same forms were used to recall the values of both height and weight to calculate the BMI in kg/m² up to one decimal point (Table 1).

2.3.4. Physiological variables

To measure the resting metabolic rate (RMR) of players, the Mifflin-St Jeor equation, specific to male users, was used. The calculated values were then recorded on the players’ Physiology forms in kcal/day up to one decimal point (Table 1).

To measure the state of energy balance of the players, we subtracted the values of energy intake from the TDEE of players. The calculated values were then recorded on the players’ Physiology forms in kcal/day up to one decimal point (Table 1).

2.3.5. Physical activity variables

To measure the Energy expenditure of 3 days of the CP of the players, they were provided with a physical activity form, and asked to record their complete physical activity routine of 24 hours after completing their day. To assess the TDEE of 24 hours, we then referred to their record of each day, noted the specific physical activity ratio²⁶ with all activities performed by the players, and then used the Factorial Estimation Method²⁶ to calculate their physical activity level and TDEE. The calculated values of 3 days were then recorded on the players’ physical activity forms in kcal/day up to one decimal point (Table 1).

2.3.6. Nutritional variables

To measure the intakes of energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water (upon awakening on match days, 20-30 minutes before matches, and during matches) on 3 days of the CP of the players, they were guided to note down everything that they ate or drank on their 3 day dietary recall forms during the CP. To assess the food items recorded, a software ‘DietCal Version 10.0’, developed by a faculty dietician of All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Delhi, India, was used which referred to the Indian Food Composition Tables-2017.⁴⁹ The calculated values were then noted on the players’ 3 day dietary recall forms in kcal for energy; gm for carbohydrate, protein, and fat; and mL for water up to one decimal point (Table 1).

Table 1: Study variables & assessment tools

Categories	S.No.	Variables	SI Unit	Tools
Demography	1	Chronological age	years	Demographic form
Sports	2	Experience in FH	years	Sports form
	3	Level in FH	N.A.
	4	College education in FH	N.A.
	5	College education in sports nutrition	N.A.
Anthro- pometry	6	Height	cm	Anthropometric rod and form
	7	Weight	kg	Weight scale and anthropometric form
	8	BMI	kg/m²	Basic calculator
Physiology	9	Resting metabolic rate	kcal/day	Mifflin St. Jeor equation
Physiology	10	State of energy balance during CP	kcal/day	3 day activity & dietary recall forms
Physical activity	11	Energy expenditure during CP	kcal/day	3 day activity recall form and Factorial estimation method
Nutrition	12	Energy intake during CP	kcal/day	3 day dietary recall form and DietCal Version 10.0 software
	13	Carbohydrate intake during CP	gm/day
	14	Protein intake during CP	gm/day
	15	Fat intake during CP	gm/day
	16	Water intake upon awakening on match days	mL
	17	Water intake 20-30 minutes before matches	mL
	18	Water intake during matches	mL

2.4. Statistical analyses

Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS software (version 25.0).

The Shapiro-Wilk test was applied to all variables for normality testing, and a level of 5% probability (p <0.05) was used to indicate the level of significance.

The measures of Central Tendency Mean and Standard Deviation were calculated for age, height, weight, resting metabolic rate, state of energy balance, energy expenditure, energy intake, carbohydrate intake, protein intake, fat intake, and water intakes. The measure of Central Tendency Median was also calculated for carbohydrate intake, protein intake, fat intake, water intake upon awakening on match days, water intake 20-30 minutes before matches, and water intake during matches. The measure of Percentage was also calculated to check how many players’ mean intakes of Energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water were within the recommended value or ranges of Energy, carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water in the CP.

Left-tailed Student’s t-test was applied to assess whether there was a significant difference between the mean energy expenditure and mean energy intake. Cohen’s d test was also applied to calculate the effect size of the result. Left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were applied to assess whether there were significant differences between the median carbohydrate intake and required median carbohydrate intake; median protein intake and required median protein intake; median fat intake and required median fat intake; median water intake and required water intake upon awakening on match days; median water intake and required water intake 20-30 minutes before the matches; and median water intake and median required water intake during the matches. Each of the signed-rank tests were accompanied by the calculation of effect sizes (Pearson’s r), and a level of 5% probability (p <0.05) was used to indicate the level of significance.

3.1. Normality

The normality analysis with the Shapiro-Wilk test reported that the data related to all variables, except the water intakes, of the players were normally distributed (Supplementary material: Normality analyses).

3.2. Characteristics of players

The characteristics of entire team showed that their age was 23.0±1.4 years (mean±SD), weight was 66.0±8.1 kg, height was 173.9±5.6 cm, BMI was 21.9±2.4 kg/m², and competitive experience in hockey was 6±1 years. Furthermore, 16 out of 16 (100%) of the players were of collegiate level, only 1 player had participated at All India University level, and none of the players had participated at state or national levels. In terms of their education, 16 out of 16 (100%) players had studied the subjects of hockey and sports nutrition in their college education (Table 2).

Table 2: Characteristics of players (n=16).

Characteristics	Outcomes
Chronological age (years)	23.0±1.4*
Weight (kg)	66.9±8.1*
Height (cm)	173.9±5.6*
BMI (kg/m²)	22.1±2.4*
Competitive experience in hockey (years)	6.0±1.0*
Highest participation level in Hockey National State All India University Collegiate	0/16 (0) 0/16 (0) 1/16 (6.25) 16/16 (100)
Studied the subject of FH in college education	16/16 (100)**
Studied the subject of Sports Nutrition in college education	16/16 (100)**

* Data is presented as mean±SD.

** Data is presented as percentage.

3.3. State of energy balance

The descriptive analyses revealed that 16/16 players (100%) had a state of negative energy balance, and the team had a grand mean energy expenditure of 3189.9±560.3 kcal/day (48 kcal/kg bw) and a grand mean energy intake of 2076.6±418.4 kcal/day (31 kcal/kg bw) which led to a state of negative energy balance of -1113.3±649.9 kcal/day (-17 kcal/kg bw).

Upon inferential analysis (left-tailed student’s t-test), a highly significant difference was found in between the mean energy expenditure and mean energy intake of the team as a p-value of 0.00005 (with a t-value of -6.85) was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a d-value of 0.8 (Table 3).

Table 3: State of energy balance of the team

EE (Kcal)		EI (Kcal)		SEB (Kcal)		t- value	p- value	α	d- value
Grand mean	per kg bw	Grand mean	per kg bw	Grand mean	per kg bw
3189.9±560.3	48	2076.6±418.4	31	-1113.3±649.9	-17	-6.85	0.00001	<0.05	0.8

Abbreviations: EE=energy expenditure; EI= energy intake; SEB= state of energy balance.

3.4. Profile of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water

3.4.1. Carbohydrate

The descriptive analyses revealed that the team had a mean carbohydrate intake of 289.7±47.7 gm/day which was less than the recommended range of 401-669 gm/day (calculated as per the recommendation of 6-10 gm/kg body weight/day) of carbohydrate per day during the CP. It also was observed that their median carbohydrate intake of 279.9 gm/day was also less than their median carbohydrate requirement of 535 gm/day (Table 4).

The inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) revealed that a highly significant difference was there in between the median carbohydrate requirement and median carbohydrate intake of the team as a p-value of 0.00001 (with a Z-value of -4.16) was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a r-value of -1.04 (Table 5).

3.4.2. Protein

The descriptive analyses revealed that the the team had a mean protein intake of 66.9±13.6 gm/day which was less than the recommended range of 94-114 gm/day (calculated as per the recommendation of 1.4-1.7 gm/kg body weight/day) of protein per day during the CP. It was also observed that their median protein intake of 64.5 gm/day was also less than their median protein requirement of 104 gm/day (Table 4).

The inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) revealed that a highly significant difference was there in between the median protein requirement and median protein intake of the team as a p-value of 0.00001 was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a r-value of -1.04 (Table 5).

3.4.3. Fat

The descriptive analyses revealed that the team had a mean fat intake of 29% of total energy intake which was in between the recommended range of 20-35 % of total energy intake. It was also observed that their mean fat intake was 72.3±26.8 gm/day also in between the recommended range of 67-100 gm/day (calculated as per the recommendation of 1.0-1.5 gm/kg body weight/day) of fat per day during the CP. However, their median fat intake of 66.7 gm/day was found to be less than their median fat requirement of 83.5 gm/day (Table 4).

The inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) revealed that an insignificant difference was there in between the median fat requirement and median fat intake of the team as a p-value of 0.05 was found to be insignificant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a medium effect size as reported with a r-value of -0.40 (Table 5).

3.4.4. Water upon awakening on match days

The descriptive analyses revealed that the team had a mean water intake of 47±97 mL upon awakening on the match days which was less than the recommended intake of 500 mL. It was also observed that their median water intake of 0 mL/day was also less than their median water requirement of 500 mL/day (Table 4).

The inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) revealed that a highly significant difference was there in between the median water requirement and median water intake of the team as a p-value of 0.00009 was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a r-value of -0.93 (Table 5).

3.4.5. Water 20-30 minutes before matches

Regarding the team’s water intake 20-30 minutes before the match, the descriptive analyses revealed that their mean water intake was 328±146 mL which was also less than the recommended range of 400-600 mL. It was also observed that their median water intake of 250 mL/day was also less than their median water requirement of 500 mL/day (Table 4).

The inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) revealed that a highly significant difference was there in between the median water requirement and median water intake of the team as a p-value of 0.001 was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a r-value of -0.83 (Table 5).

3.4.6. Water during matches

Lastly, the team’s water intake during the matches over the course of 3 days was 718±291 mL which was also less than the amount of sweat loss reported in sports similar to FH such as 1100 mL/hour in soccer during winter season.⁴⁶ Upon further assessment, it was also observed that their median water intake of 500 mL/day was also less than their median water requirement of 1100 mL/day. However, as measuring weights before and after the matches wasn’t feasible, we couldn’t specifically assess the sweat loss of the team and compare it with their water intake during the matches (Table 4).

For the reason stated above, we conducted the inferential analysis (left-tailed Wilcoxon signed-rank test) by considering the sweat loss of 1100 mL/hour as median water requirement during the matches, and the test revealed that a highly significant difference was there in between the median water requirement and median water intake of the team as a p-value of 0.0006 was found to be significant at α of <0.05. Furthermore, this result had a large effect size as reported with a r-value of -0.79 (Table 5).

Table 4: Descriptive profile of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water

Variable	MI	MDI		REC		MDR	Profile as per the MDR
Variable	MI	per kg bw	total	per kg bw	total	MDR	Profile as per the MDR
C (gm)	289.7 ± 47.7	4.40	279.9 (56.6%)*	6-10	401-669	535	Deficiency	-255.1
P (gm)	66.9 ± 13.6	1.01	64.5 (13.0%)*	1.4-1.7	94-114	104	Deficiency	-39.5
F (gm)	72.3 ± 26.8	1.05	66.7 (30.4%)*	1.0-1.5	67-100	83.5	Deficiency	-16.8
W1 (mL)	46.9 ± 100.8	N.A.	0	N.A.	500	500	Deficiency	-500
W2 (mL)	328.1 ± 150.5	N.A.	250	N.A.	400- 600	500	Deficiency	-250
W3 (mL)	718.7 ± 301.0	N.A.	500	N.A.	1100	1100	Deficiency	-600

*intake as per median energy intake.

Abbreviations: MI=mean intake; MDI=median intake; REC=recommendation; MDR=median requirement; C=carbohydrate; P=protein; F=fat; W1=water intake upon awakening on match days; W2=water intake 20-30 minutes before match; W3=water intake during match.

Table 5: Inferential profile of carbohydrate, protein, fat, and water

Variable	MI	MDR	W-value (W-, W+)	Z- value	r- value	p- value	α
C (gm)	279.9	535	0 (136, 0)	-4.16	-1.04	0.00001*	<0.05
P (gm)	64.5	104	0 (136, 0)	-4.16	-1.04	0.00001*	<0.05
F (gm)	66.7	83.5	36 (100, 36)	-1.62	-0.40	0.05**	<0.05
W1 (mL)	0	500	0 (136, 0)	-3.72	-0.93	0.00009*	<0.05
W2 (mL)	250	500	7 (84, 7)	-3.0	-0.83	0.001*	<0.05
W3 (mL)	500	1100	7 (129, 7)	-3.19	-0.79	0.0006*	<0.05

*significant difference between intake and requirement; **insignificant difference between intake and requirement

Abbreviations: MI=mean intake; MDR=median requirement; C=carbohydrate; P=protein; F=fat; W1=water intake upon awakening on match days; W2=water intake 20-30 minutes before match; W3=water intake during match.

4.1. Background

Knowing the impact of sports nutrition and an unavailability of sufficient data on nutritional profile of men FH players during the CP, we conducted the current study to assess the nutritional profile of a collegiate men’s FH team of DU during the University’s championship 2017-18. For a course of 3 days of the championship, we assessed the players’ energy expenditure, energy intake, state of energy balance, intake of macronutrients and water; and then compared their profile with the competitive requirements.

4.2. Energy

Considering the high intensity-intermittent nature of FH, the TDEE of players during the 3 day course of the championship was recorded to be expectedly as high as 3189.9±560.3. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study which assessed the TDEE of men FH players during their CP. We could find and review other reports on TDEE of sportspersons from other sports; and match play specific energy expenditure of both men and women FH players but as data on TDEE of FH players on their match days was unavailable, we couldn’t compare our results with any other data. Further studies should assess the TDEE of collegiate men FH players to develop a comprehensive understanding, and contribute to the development of requirements of total energy intake on match days.

Although our study revealed that all 16 out of 16 (100%) players had studied the subjects of FH and sports nutrition in their college education which should precede an understanding that the players should be able to understand the nutritional requirements of FH and manage their dietary profiles, but with a belief that the personalized assistance given by a sports nutritionist is invaluable and none of the team players were assisted by a sports nutritionist, we hypothesized that the players will have a deficient intake of energy, macronutrients, and water during the championship.

In line with our hypothesis, the study revealed a highly significant deficiency of energy in the players with a large effect size (Grand mean energy expenditure = 3189.9±560.3 or 48 kcal/kg bw; Grand mean energy intake=2076.6±418.4 or 31 kcal/kg bw; Grand state of energy balance: -1113.3±649.9 or -17 kcal/kg bw; p-value=0.00001; α=<0.05; d-value=0.8). The result of our study was significantly less than the energy intakes of 44 kcal/kg bw of elite men FH players of Holland,⁶²^{, 21} and 45 kcal/kg bw of elite men FH players of USA¹⁸^{, 21} which is concerning.

The potential impact of energy deficiency, also known as low energy availability (LEA) and relative energy deficiency in sports (RED-S), is well established in terms of fatigue, reduced endurance and strength, impaired coordination and concentration, increased risk of injuries, impaired immunity, gastrointestinal distress, psychological stress and depression, reduced testosterone, impaired bone health, etc.,⁴⁴^{, 11} which may lead to performance failure in matches-costing championships and ultimately the sports career of the sportspersons.

Further studies with more collegiate men FH players are warranted to identify the prevalence of RED-S, prevent its consequences by providing assistance of a sports nutritionist, and ensure peak performance of players to secure top positions in the championships.

4.3. Carbohydrate

In line with our hypothesis, the study revealed a highly significant deficiency of carbohydrates in the players with a large effect size (median requirement=535.0 gm; median intake=279.9 gm or 4.4 gm/kg bw or 56.6% of median energy intake; deficiency: -255.1 gm; p-value=0.00001; α=<0.05; r-value=-1.04). The result of our study was slightly less than the carbohydrate intakes of 4.9 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of Holland,⁶²^{, 21} and slightly higher than the 4.2 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of USA¹⁸^{, 21} which highlights a need of further comparison with new data as and when it's available.

The potential impact of carbohydrate deficiency, also known as low carbohydrate availability (LCA), is equally bad as the Red-S.³³ Furthermore, LCA may also increase the oxidation of BCAA³⁷ which may lead to muscle loss in players, eventually reversing their progress that they had achieved after several months of regular exercise training and adaptation.

Further studies with more collegiate men FH players are warranted to identify the prevalence of LCA, prevent its consequences by providing assistance of a sports nutritionist, and ensure peak performance of players to secure top positions in the championships.

4.4. Protein

In line with our hypothesis, the study revealed a highly significant deficiency of protein in the players with a large effect size (median requirement=104; median intake=64.5 or 1.01gm/kg bw or 13% of median energy intake; deficiency: -39.5; p-value=0.00001; α=<0.05; r-value=-1.04). The result of our study was significantly less than the protein intakes of 1.4 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of Holland,⁶²^{, 21} and 1.9 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of USA¹⁸^{, 21} which was concerning.

The potential impact of protein deficiency, also known as protein energy malnutrition (PEM),¹⁹ is well established in terms of developing negative nitrogen balance²² which may eventually lead to muscle wasting, reduced recovery, injuries, impaired immunity, and an intolerance to high activity loads. All of this may significantly affect competitive performance and results.

Further studies with more collegiate men FH players are warranted to identify the prevalence of PEM, prevent its consequences by providing assistance of a sports nutritionist, and ensure peak performance of players to secure top positions in the championships.

4.5. Fat

Opposite to our hypothesis, the study revealed an insignificant difference between the requirement and intake of fat by the players (median requirement=83.5; median intake=66.7 or 1.05 gm/kgbw or 30.4% of median energy intake; deficiency: -16.8; p-value=0.05; α=<0.05; r-value=-0.40). However, considering the medium effect of this result, our interpretation is that the players marginally managed to fulfill the requirement of fat during the championship. Furthermore, the result of our study was significantly less than the fat intakes of 1.8 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of Holland,⁶²^{, 21} and 1.9 gm/kg bw of elite men FH players of USA.¹⁸^{, 21}

The potential impact of fat deficiency is evident in terms of deficiency of fat-soluble vitamins A and E which may reduce antioxidative ability of body; vitamin D which may reduce muscular power and endurance; and vitamin K which may increase the risk of fracture, sexual hormonal imbalance,¹⁴ cognitive decline,⁵⁹ weekend immunity,¹³ dry skin,⁵⁶ and reduced endurance performance²²; all of which may significantly affect competitive performance and results.

Further studies with more collegiate men FH players are warranted to identify the prevalence of low fat intake, prevent its consequences by providing assistance of a sports nutritionist, and ensure peak performance of players to secure top positions in the championships.

4.6. Water

In line with our hypothesis, the study revealed a highly significant deficiency of water upon awakening on match days in the players with a large effect size (median requirement=500; median intake=0; deficiency: -500; p-value=0.00009; α=<0.05; r-value=-0.93); a highly significant deficiency of water 20-30 minutes before matches with a large effect size (median requirement=500; median intake=250; deficiency: -250; p-value=0.001; α=<0.05; r-value=-0.83); and a highly significant deficiency of water during matches with a large effect size (median water requirement=1100; median water intake=500; deficiency: -600; p-value=0.0006; α=<0.05; r-value=-0.79). As comparative data for men FH players was unavailable, we could only indirectly compare our results with one study that too had reported dehydration in national men FH players during a 10 day pre-olympic training camp as highlighted by a reduction in their post match body weight by >1% in 50–85% players and >2% in 40% players, and a high mean specific gravity of urine in up to 64% players²² which is concerning.

The potential impact of dehydration is evident in terms of reduced aerobic performance,⁵⁴ anaerobic performance,⁵¹ impaired thermoregulation causing heat stress,²⁸ increased perception of exertion,¹² and impaired cognition³⁸; all of which may significantly affect competitive performance and results.

Scarcity of data highlights an emergent need to further assess the water intake of more collegiate men FH players to identify the prevalence of dehydration, prevent its consequences by providing assistance of a sports nutritionist, and ensure peak performance of players to secure top positions in the championships.

Indian men’s hockey has a rich legacy of doing well in the Olympics, World Cups, Commonwealth Games, and other prestigious tournaments. In recent years, there has been a renewed focus on regaining prominence on the global stage, and creating a paradigm shift in the way we support our players right from their exposure and closure to competitive FH may contribute to the vision. The role of sports nutrition in contributing to the sportspersons’ health, wellness, fitness, and performance is evident, and considering the significant nutritional deficiencies of energy, carbohydrate, protein, water, and bare minimum intake of fat by the participating players of this study, we interpret this to be one of the causal factors of impaired performance and poor results of the team in the University championship. To the best of our understanding and intent, our belief is that there’s an emergent need to conduct further nutritional studies with more FH players and other sportspersons of DU, and simultaneously mandate assistance of sports nutritionists to all university players. With that, the players will have a better chance to fulfill the dream of doing well in sports; without that, their performance, competitive results, and sports career will always be uncertain!

FH

Field Hockey

TD

Total distance

CP

Competition period

TDEE

Total daily energy expenditure

DU

Delhi University

BMI

Body mass index

RMR

Resting metabolic rate.

Funding

The authors did not receive support from any organization for the submitted work.

Declaration of competing interests

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Ethical approval

This research involved repeated survey design that was approved by the Department of Physical Education & Sports Sciences, University of Delhi.

Consent to participate

All participants gave their written informed consent and volunteered to participate.

Consent to publish

This manuscript doesn’t contain any individual person’s data in any form.

Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study is openly available in the supplementary information. For more details, the interested readers may contact the corresponding author.

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The authors declare no competing interests.

SupplementaryMaterialAlarmingnutritionalprofileJSSE.pdf
Supplementary Information: Normality analyses