Organic Amendments Improved wheat Growth in Cd-Contaminated Soil

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5277407/v1

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Organic Amendments Improved wheat Growth in Cd-Contaminated Soil

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5277407/v1

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Background and Aims

Using organic amendments proposes a cost-effective solution to reduce cadmium mobility and uptake by plants under polluted soil.

Methods

Various organic amendments namely peanut shell (PN), sunflower shell (SF), walnut shell (WL) and peas peels (PS) once at a rate of 10% was applied to investigate whether and how plant growth of wheat (Triticum durum Desf. var. VITRON.) was affected when growing in Cd (50 mg kg^− 1) contaminated soil, along with control in which distilled water was used without Cd contamination. This effect was evaluated through germination parameters (germination kinetics, germination speed, germination rate and emergence rate), growth parameters (leaf area, total weight, total plant length, shoot and root length, number of roots and leaves) and physiological parameters (relative water content, relative electrolyte leakage, membrane stability index, total chlorophyll content, soluble sugar, protein and proline content).

Results

The results showed that stressors significantly decreased the vegetative growth parameters, altered speed germination (p < 0.05), total plant weight (p < 0.001), membrane stability index (p < 0.05), leaf area and shoot length (p < 0.001). However, application of organic amendments seems to attenuate the negative effects of the Cd stress by the improvement of germination speed, total weight, membrane stability, leaf area, plant length, number of roots, relative water content, total chlorophyll content, proteins, proline and soluble sugar content in roots.

Conclusions

Overall, the application of PN or WL was more efficient in decreasing Cd effect in leaf and roots of wheat as compared to other organic amendments.

Cadmium toxicity

mitigation

chlorophyll attributes

organic amendments

wheat

Abiotic stress is one of the most important environmental factors causing serious problems to crop production in arid and semi-arid regions (Abdelmalek et al. 2023, Chebout et al. 2023).

Heavy metals (HM) are naturally present as components of the earth’s crust (Singh et al. 2011) and are distributed in the components of ecosystem by natural factor (Mahmood et al. 2012) because of their resistance to decomposition, these materials accumulate in the environment and cause contamination (Ali et al. 2017).

Contamination of agricultural soil by HM is a significant environmental issue. Human activities such as improper disposal from smelting operations, excessive fertilizer use, and irrigation with polluted water contribute to this problem (Xiao et al. 2008; Liu et al. 2017; Feng et al. 2018).

Heavy metals in soil can find their way into the food we grow, increasing the risk of both cancer and other health problems for people, especially children (Peng et al. 2022; Peirori-Minaee et al. 2023).

The primary types of heavy metals and metalloids found in soil encompass Cd, Hg, As, Pb, Cr, Cu, Zn, Ni, among others (Yu et al. 2018; Shi et al. 2019). In the semi-arid areas of Northeast Algeria (particularly our region Tebessa, the soil was lightly contaminated by Cu and Pb, but Cd was outside the allowed range for agricultural soils according to the evaluation by AFNOR N F U 44 − 041(Gacem et al. 2023).

Cadmium (Cd), a highly toxic heavy metal, accumulates in plant tissues, endangering the environment and human health (Rahim et al. 2022). It is a proven cancer-causing agent for humans (classified as Group 1 by the International Agency for Research on Cancer) and it's particularly concerning because it easily moves from soil to the plants we eat (Chaney 1980; Clemens et al. 2013). Long-term exposure to Cd can also cause kidney failure, immune system dysfunction, cardiovascular disease, ovarian, prostate, and renal carcinogenicity in humans, among other harmful effects (Huang et al. 2017; Melila et al. 2022; Pan et al. 2022). The prolonged utilization of cadmium (Cd)-contaminated agricultural land has triggered a surge in Cd levels within cereal grains, fruits, vegetables, and other food crops, posing a significant threat to human health due to potential exposure (Romero-Estévez et al. 2023; Mazumder et al. 2023).

There is a great variation in the accumulation of Cd among different crop species. For example, the concentration of heavy metals in wheat grown in the USA, Netherlands, UK, and Canada ranges from 0.002 to 0.41 mg kg − 1 DW (Chaudri et al. 1995; Wolnik et al. 1983). To ensure food safety, it is crucial to create workable strategies to lower cadmium deposition in edible agricultural products. In order to reduce the potential health effects of cadmium contamination in agricultural products from cadmium-contaminated soil, physical, chemical, and biological remediation measures have been proposed (Kulsum et al. 2022; Rehman et al. 2023).

However, the old physical and chemical solutions are difficult to promote on a large scale in agricultural land due to high prices, high energy consumption, long-term fallow, and possible secondary pollution (Khalid et al. 2017; Wang et al. 2016).

In situ immobilization has been shown to be one of the most economical methods for remediating soil among the widely used approaches. In order to fix the heavy metals in the soil and reduce their leachability and bioavailability, a low-cost external agent is given to the soil (Guo et al. 2006; Ruttens et al. 2010; Houben et al. 2012).

Consequently, the specific aim of this experiment was to investigate the ameliorative effects of fertilizers as soil fixatives on reducing bioavailability and cadmium accumulation in wheat grown in a polluted environment..

Seed Material

In this experiment, durum wheat seeds (Triticum durum Desf. var. VITRON) were kindly provided by the ITGC (Technical Institute of Field Crops). This wheat variety was chosen due to its agronomic interest, semolina quality, and known sensitivity to water deficit. Before sowing, healthy and homogenous seeds were surface sterilized with 10% sodium hypochlorite solution for 5 min following 3–4 washings with distilled water.

Preparation of organic amendments

We used household vegetable scraps, such as peanut (PN), walnut (WL), pea (PS), and sunflower peels (SF), as organic matter. These scraps were dried separately in a dark, dry place until completely dry. Then, they were ground up using a grinder.

Experimental conditions

Pot experiments were conducted to evaluate the effect of organic amendments (PN, SF, WL and PS) at a rate of 10% on wheat growth weighed and thoroughly mixed in soil (400 g depending upon the size of pot) compared by stressed seeds without organic amendment (Cd) and no stressed seeds with no organic amendment (T0). The desired Cd level (50 mg Cd kg^− 1 soil) was prepared with soil and left for 2 weeks to homogenize Cd. The surface sterilized seeds of wheat cultivar were placed in each pot with the help of a sterilized pincer at uniform depth. The pots were placed in the greenhouse of the exact science and science of nature and life faculty of our University. Light and dark periods were adjusted at 10 and 14 h, while a temperature of 25 ± 2 C were maintained during the whole growth period. Treatments were structured in a completely randomized design in factorial arrangement (CRD factorial) with three replicates. At tillering, the following parameters were measured.

Morphological and physio-biochemical analysis

Germination rate

After sowing, we counted the germinated seeds in each pot. The germination rate for each treatment which corresponds to the percentage of Triticum durum seeds germinated after fourteen (14) days according to Côme (1970), was determined as follows:

Germination rate (%) = Number of germinated seeds/Number of sown seeds × 100

Kinetics of germination

To better understand the physiological process of sprouted grain, the number of sprouting grains was counted daily until the 7th day of the experiment of the germ behaviour of the studied varieties (Hajlaoui et al. 2007).

Speed of germination

Speed of germination was calculated by the following formula given by (Czabator 1962).

Speed of germination = n1/d1 + n2/d2 + n3/d3+----------

Where, n = number of germinated seeds, d = number of days.

Emergence rate

The emergence rate corresponds to the percentage of visible Triticum durum seedlings. Observations on emergence were made during the thirty (30) days following sowing. A grain was considered to have emerged when the epicotyl had emerged from the soil and the cotyledons had become visible (Ng-Timothy and Tigchelaar 1973). The emergence rate for each treatment is determined as follows:

Emergence rate (%) = Number of emerged seedlings/Number of sown seeds × 100

Measurement of length

The length of the aerial and root parts is measured using a graduated rule. The results are expressed in centimeters.

Relative water content (RWC)

Sampling was performed using scissors; young leaf per pot was taken and their fresh weights (FW) were immediately measured. All samples were then placed in distilled water separately and kept at 4°C for 24 h. After 24 h, then carefully bolt-dried with a paper towel and the saturation weight (SW) of the leaves was measured and the leaves were placed in an oven at 80°C for another 24 h and the dry weight (DW) of each was measured (Yaghoubian et al. 2022).

The RWC was determined as follows: RWC = (FW – DW)/(TW – DW) x 100.

Foliar surface

Foliar surface (SF) is determined according to the formula described by Bezzala (2005):

SF = (π × a × b) / 4

SF: Foliar surface (cm²)
a: Leaf blade length (cm)
b: Leaf blade width (cm)

Measurement of membrane integrity

Membrane integrity is estimated by measuring electrolytic conductivity according to the modified protocol of Pike et al. (1998). Conductivity indicates the amount of electrolytes in a given solution. The healthier and more intact a leaf, the less electrolytes its fragments release into the immersion water; therefore, the lower the conductivity value. Conductivity measurements allow us to assess membrane integrity. Ten 1 cm leaf fragments are placed in 10 ml of distilled water in test tubes and shaken for 1 hour. The first conductivity (EC, in micro Siemens/cm: µS.cm-1) is measured using a conductivity meter. Subsequently, these tubes are placed in a water bath at 95°C for 1 hour to obtain total destruction of the plant material. After cooling, a second conductivity measurement is made (total conductivity, ET). Membrane integrity (expressed as a percentage) is determined by the ratio of EC to ET:

Relative electrolyte leakage (%) = (EC / ET) * 100

Membrane stability index

The membrane stability index (MSI) was determined according to the method described by Sairam et al. (2002). Leaf samples (0.1 g) were cut into discs of homogeneous size and placed in 10 ml of deionized water and the whole was set at 40°C for 30 min, the conductivity was measured (C1). After that, the same samples were placed in a boiling water bath (100°C) for 10 min and the conductivity was recorded a second time (C2). The membrane stability index (MSI) was calculated as follows:

MSI = [1 - (C1/C2)] × 100

Total chlorophyll content were measured based on the method described by Lichtenthaler et al. (1987). 100 mg of leaves were homogenized in 5 mL of 99% methanol and incubated in the dark for 24 h at 4°C. Quantification was performed by spectrophotometry and samples were read at 665.2 nm, 652.4 nm, and 470 nm. The amount of pigment contents was performed using the following formula:

Chlt = (16.75 A_665.2− 9.16 A_652.4) + (34.09 A_652.4− 15.28 A_665.2)

Protein content

Protein assay is performed according to the Bradford method (1976), in a 200 µl aliquot, to which 2 ml of Coomassie Brilliant Blue (CBB) G250 (Merck) reagent is added. The absorbance is read at a wavelength of 595 nm using a spectrophotometer. The calibration curve is prepared using a 1 mg/ml bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution.

Soluble sugars

The method used for the assay of soluble sugars is that of Schields and Burnett (1960), which uses anthrone in sulfuric acid medium. The principle of this method is based on the condensation of the degradation products of neutral sugars. Concentrated sulfuric acid converts carbohydrates to sulfuric derivatives at high temperature: hexoses produce derivatives that give with anthrone a green coloration with a maximum absorption at 585 nm.

Proline content

The technique used for proline determination is that of Bates (1973) modified by Magné and Larher (1992) in such a way as to avoid interference with sugars (by removing phosphoric acid in the preparation of ninhydrin). This technique is based on the ability of proline to react in an acidic and hot medium with ninhydrin to give a pink-colored compound, soluble in organic solvents such as toluene. The upper phase is taken and its optical density (OD) is measured at a wavelength of λ = 520 nm on a spectrophotometer.

Statistical analysis

Data processing was performed using Microsoft Excel 2010, ExcelStat 2014 and R Version 3.6.2. Shapiro-Wilk’s and Levene’s test were applied to test for normality and variance homogeneity across treatments, respectively.

In the case of normal data and homogeneous parametric tests, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and Tukey test were used. Nonparametric tests and specifically, the Kruskal-Wallis test were used for non-normal data. The level of significance was considered less than 0.05. When Kruskal- Wallis tests indicated significant differences between the analysed groups, the analysis was further developed using Conover-Iman test for multiple comparisons.

Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out to analyze the data using the Rstudio (version 4.4.0). The experiment was arranged according to CRD-2 factor factorial design. It comprised of two factors [Factor A: Organe with leaf and root; Factor B: organic amendments with 36 levels, i.e., T0, Cd, PN, SF, WL and PS]. Post hoc HSD Tukey test was used to determine significance between treatment means at p = 5%.

Germination responses of Triticum durum (Vitron) under Cd stress and organic amendments

This study examined the effects of organic amendments on germination parameters (germination kinetics, germination speed, germination rate and emergence rate) in durum wheat (Triticum durum var. Vitron) exposed to 50 ppm of cadmium.

The results represented on figure 1 indicate that under Cd stress, the kinetics of germination expresses three phases, a phase of latency, which had with the imbibition of seeds; an exponential phase where one attends an acceleration of germination and a stationary stage indicating a break of germination. Completely, whatever the organic amendment used; the germinative capacity of Cd-stressed seeds is increased compared to the stressed seeds without organic amendment (Cd) and no stressed seeds with no organic amendment (T0) and this for the PN, WL and SF used, when a maximum rate of germination had been expressed on the 6^th day.

Cd exposure significantly reduced speed germination index (1,183 ± 0,076 for T0 versus 0,540 ± 0,314 for Cd‐exposed)

Applied organic amendments significantly increased speed germination index (SG) as shown in Table 1 (p = 0,027). Significant differences of seed germination were observed in figure 2 between stressed seeds without organic amendment (Cd) when SG = 0,540±0,314 and stressed seeds in soil added by peanut shell (PN) when SG = 1,218±0,296.

A Kruskal-Wallis non-parametric test (Table 2) revealed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the germination rate and the emergence rate of Triticum durum (Vitron) grown under controlled conditions with Cd-50 ppm across the various organic amendment treatments.

Table 01. Analysis of variance of the speed of germination (SG) of Triticum durum grown in the presence of cd (50 mg kg⁻¹) and organic amendments

Source	Df	Sum Sq	Mean Sq	F value	Pr (>F)
SG	5	0 999	0,200	3,927	0,027
Error	11	0,560	0,051
Total	16	1,559

Table 02. Kruskal-Wallis analysis of germination rate and emergence rate of Triticum durum grown in the presence of Cd (50 mg kg⁻¹) and organic amendments

Kruskal-Wallis test	Germina ion rate	Emergence rate
K (Observed value)	9,000	5,560
K (Critical value)	11,070	11,070
DDL	5	5
P-value	0,109	0,351
Alpha	0,05	0,05

Growth parameters responses of Triticum durum (Vitron) under Cd stress and organic amendments

The effects of organic amendments on various growth parameters of Triticum durum (Vitron) seedlings exposed to cadmium (Cd) stress (50 mg kg⁻¹) were investigated. Seven growth parameters were measured: leaf area, total weight, total plant length, length of the aerial part, root length, number of roots and number of leaves.

Analysis of variance (Table 03) revealed a very highly significant effect (p < 0.0001) of organic amendments on the leaf area (LA), total plant height (TPH), length of the aerial part (APL) and total weight (TW) of Triticum durum seedlings grown under Cd stress compared to the Cd (Cd stress wihtout amendments). Highly significant impact of organic amendments on the total weight of Triticum durum (Vitron) grown under controlled conditions with 50 ppm cadmium (Cd) stress was also shown.

Cd exposure significantly reduced total weight (0,487 ± 0,058 g for T0 versus 0.093 ± 0.054 g for Cd‐exposed), leaf area (9.360±0.675 cm²for T0 versus 1.066±0.455 cm²for Cd‐exposed) and length of the aerial part (34.00 ± 1.732 cm for T0 versus 11.333 ± 5.572 cm for Cd‐exposed).

Organic amendments SF and WL displayed a very highly significant effect (p < 0.0001), while amendments PN and PS exhibited a significant effect (p = 0.012) on total weight compared to the Cd (without organic amendments).

Figure 2.b, visually demonstrates a substantial increase in total weight for Triticum durum treated with organic amendment SF (0.483 ± 0.035 g) and WL (0.347 ± 0.064 g) compared to the Cd (0.093 ± 0.054 g). Similarly, a significant increase in total weight was observed with amendments PN (0.260 ± 0.026 g) and PS (0.260 ± 0.046 g) compared to the Cd.

Organic amendment SF (5.265±0.608 cm²) significantly enhanced (p < 0.0001) the leaf area of Triticum durum (Vitron) subjected to cadmium stress (50 mg kg⁻¹) compared to the Cd (1.066±0.455 cm²). Other amendments WL (3.848±0.919 cm²), PN (3.98±0.179 cm²) and PS (3.458±1.110 cm²) also exhibited a highly significant (p < 0.01) for WL and significant (p < 0.05) increases in leaf area for PN and PS compared to the Cd.

Organic amendments SF (33.167 ± 2.3631 cm) and WL (28.833 ± 1.607 cm), along with the T0 (38.333 ± 2.517 cm), resulted in a very highly significant increase (p < 0.0001) in total plant length compared to the Cd treatment (14.667 ± 4.311 cm). Seedling total length was also highly significantly increased (p = 0.002) following application of organic amendments PN (26.000 ± 0.000 cm) and PS (26.000 ± 2.784 cm) compared to the Cd.

The impact of SF organic amendment on the length of the aerial part (shoot length) in Triticum durum cultivar Vitron exposed to cadmium stress revealed a highly significant effect (p = 0.001) on shoot length PS (25.000 ± 0.500 cm) compared to the control treatment Cd (11.333 ± 5.572 cm). Organic amendment SF (23.000 ± 3.500 cm ) highly significantly enhanced shoot length in cadmium-stressed plants (50 ppm). Other amendments (PN, 21.167 ± 0.289 cm and WL, 21.333 ± 2.02 cm) also exhibited significant increases (p < 0.05) in shoot length compared to the Cd. These findings suggest that organic amendments, particularly amendment SF, can potentially mitigate the detrimental effects of cadmium stress on the growth of Triticum durum (Vitron).

No significant effect (p > 0.05) of organic amendments on root length of Triticum durum (Vitron) relative to the cadmium Cd treatment. Mean root lengths for the SF, PN, PS, WL, and T0 treatments were 7.000 cm ± 1.803 cm, 5.500 cm ± 1.803 cm, 2.333 cm ± 0.289 cm, 6.500 cm ± 1.500 cm, and 3.333 cm ± 0.289 cm, respectively. The mean root length of the Cd was 3.333 cm ± 1.528 cm.

Table 03. Analysis of variance of leaf area (LA), total plant height (TPH), length of the aerial part (APL), root length (RL) and total weight (TW) in Triticum durum cultivated in the presence of cadmium (50 mg kg⁻¹) and organic amendments.

	Df	Sum Sq	Mean Sq	F value	Pr (>F)
TW	5	0,341	0,068	28,668	< 0,0001
LA	5	117,286	23,457	42,939	< 0,0001
TPH	5	959,333	191,867	28,193	< 0,0001
APL	5	799,403	159,881	18,902	< 0,0001
RL	5	55,500	11,100	5,920	0,006

Table 04. Kruskal-Wallis Test for root and leaf number of durum wheat exposed to cadmium (50 mg kg⁻¹) and organic amendments

	Number of roots	Number of leaves
K (Observed value)	11,161	8,442
K (Critical value)	11,070	11,070
DDL	5	5
p-value	0,048	0,134
Alpha	0,05	0,05

A Kruskal-Wallis test (Table 04) revealed no significant effect (p > 0.05) of organic amendments on leaf number relative to the Cd (seedlings exposed to cadmium stress without amendments). But it revealed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in root number for wheat treated with organic amendment.

Figure 03 (e), shown that organic amendment WL resulted in the highest root number (30.333 ± 4.509) compared to Cd (08.333 ± 1.528). Amendment PN (18.667 ± 8.386), SF (17.333 ± 2.517) and PS (11.667 ± 2.887) did not influence root number.

Physiological and biochemical responses of Triticum durum (Vitron) under Cd stress and organic amendments

Kruskal-Wallis test (Table 05) revealed a significant effect of organic amendments on the relative water content (p < 0.05) of Triticum durum plants exposed to Cd stress. Compared to Cd treatment (32.146±12.953 %), PS (67.445±17.887 %), WL (64.476±8.726 %) and the unamendment-uncontaminated plants, T0 (61.085±11.283 %), the PN (95.460±167.421%) and SF (87.713±2.836%) application showed a very highly significant effect (p= 0.001).

Analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed no significant effect (p > 0.05) of organic amendment on relative electrolyte leakage (%) and a significant influence (p < 0.05) on the membrane stability index (MSI) of Triticum durum (Vitron) grown under controlled conditions with 50 mg kg⁻¹ cadmium (Cd) stress.

Cd exposure significantly reduced membrane stability index (68.973 ± 5.635 % for T0 versus 35.282 ± 13.486 % for Cd‐exposed)

Compared to the Cd treatment (35.282 ± 13.486 %), organic amendment with WL (67.470 ± 8.149 %) resulted in a significant increase (p < 0.05) in MSI.

Analysis of variance revealed a very highly significant effect (p < 0.001) of organic amendment on total chlorophyll content. As illustrated in the table below, the mean of total chlorophyll content in seedlings treated with PS (5649.161 ± 757.450 mg/g FW) was significantly greater than the Cd treatment (1885.318 ± 963.730 mg/g FW). In contrast, the other organic amendments, PN (3310.122 ± 178.846 mg/g FW), SF (1969.796 ± 446.967 mg/g FW), WL (1686.245 ± 871.902 mg/g FW), as well as T0 (2838.719 ± 1360.910 mg/g FW), did not significantly increase (p > 0.05) total chlorophyll content compared to the Cd.

Table 05. Influence of organic amendments application on physiological traits of wheat planted in Cd toxic soil

Treatments	Relative water content (RWC) %	Relative electrolyte leakage (REL ) %	Membrane stability index (MSI) %	Total chlorophyll content (mg/g FW)
T0	61,085±11,283 ^ab	23,535±11,907	68,973±5,635 ^b	2838,719±1360,910 ^a
Cd	32,146±12,953 ^a	32,584±15,710	35,282±13,486 ^a	1885,318±963,730 ^a
SF	87,713±2,836 ^b	27,170±14,032	62,267±10,251 ^ab	1969,796±446,967 ^a
PN	167,421±95,460 ^b	43,772±12,535	60,998±4,502 ^ab	3310,122±178,846 ^ab
WL	64,476±8,726 ^ab	43,870±2,627	67,470±8,149 ^b	1686,245±871,902 ^a
PS	67,445±17,887 ^ab	51,964±34,139	49,041±13,853 ^ab	5649,161±757,450 ^b
p-value (Kruskal-Wallis test)	0,040 *
Pr>F (ANOVA)		0,385 ns	0,016 *	0,001 ***

Compost was applied at the rate of 10% to wheat; Cd was without organic amendment. Means, in each column, sharing same letters differ nonsignificantly at (p ˃ 0.05) according to post hoc HSD Tukey test. Values presented in table are means of three replicates

Asterisk shows significant effects at (p ≤ 0.05) and (p ≤ 0.001), ns nonsignificant.

The wheat exhibited significant changes in various biochemical parameters. These markers included protein, proline, and soluble sugar levels quantified in both root and foliar tissues. The impressive response of these biochemical parameters suggests their potential as indicators for identifying the most effective organic amendments for maximizing Cd removal.

Two-way ANOVA analysis (Table 06) showed that organic amendments type and interaction between organs signiﬁcantly inﬂuenced protein content, (P = 0.002), proline content, (P< 0.001) and soluble sugar content (P= 0.013).

Table 06. Two-way ANOVA of protein, proline, and soluble sugar levels in Triticum durum cultivated in the presence of cadmium (50 mg kg⁻¹) and organic amendments.

As shown in figure 4a, the addition of organic amendments (PS) exhibited a significant increase (p < 0.05) on protein content in the root of Triticum durum plants cultivated at 50 mg kg⁻¹ of Cd (23.548 ± 2.034 mg/g FW) compared to the plants exposed to Cd alone (11,956± 1,310 mg/g FW). Conversely, no significant difference (p > 0.05) in root protein content was observed between the other organic amendments (WL, PN and SF). No significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed in leaf protein levels among all treatments, including the Cd control.

Cadmium treatment significantly increased proline content in roots (1.485 ± 0.566 mg/g FW) compared to T0 (0.759 ± 0.320 mg/g FW) (figure 4b). Organic amendment application (SF, PS, PN and WL) resulted in a reduction of proline content, suggesting a mitigating effect. SF (0.293 ± 0.135 mg/g FW) treatment displayed the very highly significant decrease (p < 0.001), followed by highly significant decrease (p < 0.01) with PS (0.457 ± 0.081 mg/g FW) and a significant decrease (p < 0.05) with WL (0.577 ± 0.205 mg/g FW) and PN (0.708 ± 0.137 mg/g FW) application.

In contrast to root tissues, organic amendment treatments did not significantly affect (p > 0.05) proline content in foliar organs compared to the Cd treatment. These findings indicate that cadmium exposure specifically induced proline accumulation in Triticum durum roots, while organic amendments, particularly SF, alleviated this stress response in roots.

Organic amendment SF resulted in a highly significant increase (p < 0.0001) in sugar content of Triticum durum roots (18,562 ± 3,341 mg/g FW) compared to the roots of plants cultivated in Cd contaminated soil without amendments (6,898 ± 2,319 mg/g FW). PN application also displayed a significant increase (p < 0.05) in root sugar content (15,107 ± 2,354 mg/g FW) compared to the Cd treatment. All organic amendment treatments did not exert a significant influence (p > 0.05) on sugar content in foliar organs compared to the Cd control.

This study investigated the effects of cadmium (Cd) on wheat (Triticum durum Desf. var. VITRON) growth and explored the potential of organic amendments to alleviate its toxicity. Our findings demonstrated that 50 ppm Cd exposure resulted in significant alterations in various physiological and biochemical parameters of wheat plants. These included a reduction in speed germination (p < 0.05), total plant weight (p < 0.001), membrane stability index (p < 0.05), leaf area (p < 0.001) and shoot length (p < 0.001).

These observations align with previous research highlighting the detrimental effects of Cd on plant growth (Adrees et al. 2015; Srivastava et al. 2014; Lin et al. 2012). Plant exposure to heavy metals can present multiple physiological dysfunctions, considered a general response to the toxicity of these metals (Souahi et al. 2017; Souahi et al. 2021a).

Germination is a complex process strongly influenced by the excessive presence of heavy metals in soil (Souahi et al. 2021b; Souahi et al. 2023a). However, studies on wheat have shown that Cd concentrations as low as 20 mg L^− 1 can significantly reduce normal seedling establishment (Ahmad et al. 2012). Similarly, germination inhibition has been observed in basil exposed to Cd concentrations as low as 50 mg L^− 1 (Gharebaghi et al. 2017).

The differential sensitivity of plant species to Cd-induced germination inhibition is attributed to variations in seed coat properties and the metal's interaction with embryo tissues (Ko et al. 2012). The concentration, chemical properties of Cd, and plant species all influence its toxicity (El Rasafi et al. 2016). Cd toxicity during germination can disrupt essential metabolic processes, including a reduction in β-amylase activity, leading to impaired respiration, embryo growth, and radicle emergence (He et al. 2008). Additionally, Cd can interfere with cellular differentiation and growth by altering peroxidase activity (dos Santos et al. 2013).

Several studies have linked Cd exposure to reduced plant biomass and growth. Guilherme et al. (2015) reported decreased wheat seedling growth and biomass at relatively low Cd concentrations. Alfiya and Dheera (2015) observed a concentration-dependent reduction in various growth parameters of Brassica juncea. Ahmad et al. (2016) and Hu et al. (2015) also reported significant reductions in stem and root length, as well as overall biomass, in chickpea and crambe, respectively, under Cd stress.

Mondal et al. (2013) proposed that Cd directly inhibits hydrolytic enzymes, disrupting nutrient transport to roots and stems. Consequently, reduced root growth and impaired nutrient uptake can lead to decreased cellular elongation and division, ultimately affecting stem growth and overall plant development.

Studies by Lin et al. (2012) reported stunted root systems in rice plants exposed to 50 µM Cd (equivalent to 5.62 mg kg^− 1). This highlights the detrimental impact of Cd on root morphology, which directly affects the plant's ability to absorb essential nutrients and water from the soil (Kim et al. 2018). The observed decrease in plant biomass further supports these findings, corroborating with research on cotton by Ibrahim et al. (2015) who reported similar reductions under Cd stress.

Furthermore, our study identified an increase in proline content in the roots of Cd-treated wheat plants. This aligns with the established role of proline accumulation as a plant response to water stress triggered by Cd exposure (Costa and Morel 1994). Proline plays a crucial role in maintaining water balance and cell turgor pressure under stressful conditions (Kuznetsov and Shevyakova 1997). Additionally, it acts as a protective agent for enzymes and stabilizes protein synthesis, aiding plant survival and adaptation to stress (Kuznetsov and Shevyakova 1997). In fact, the majority of studies correlate this biochemical change with stress tolerance, suggesting that plant varieties with higher proline accumulation under stress exhibit enhanced physiological function and viability (Souahi et al. 2023b)

Interestingly, unlike some studies reporting chlorophyll inhibition under Cd and heavy metal stress (Azevedo et al. 2005; Souahi 2021), our findings did not show a decrease in chlorophyll content. This suggests that the specific effects of Cd on chlorophyll may vary depending on plant species or other environmental factors.

However, the study revealed a positive impact of incorporating peanut (PN) and walnut (WL) shells as amendments in mitigating the negative effects of Cd. These organic amendments significantly improved the physiological and biochemical indicators, leading to enhanced plant growth. Notably, sunflower shells emerged also an effective amendment for Cd remediation, which aligns with recent research by Bai et al. (2023) and Yang et al. (2023) who demonstrated the potential of agricultural waste for Cd remediation. The observed improvement in plant growth can be attributed to the influence of these amendments on soil physicochemical properties, active organic components, and biological factors. These factors collectively contribute to limiting the bioavailability of Cd in the soil, thereby reducing its uptake by plants (Cheng et al. 2022; Shen et al. 2022). This finding is consistent with previous studies highlighting the ability of organic fertilizers to enhance soil organic matter content, reduce the exchangeable Cd fraction, and transform unstable Cd forms into less bioavailable forms (Li et al. 2019; Sheng et al. 2022).

These fertilizers increase soil organic matter (SOM), decrease exchangeable Cd, and transform unstable Cd forms into less bioavailable ones.

Organic matter contributes to Cd immobilization by generating organic ligands (carboxyl, phenolic, and lactonic groups) that bind to Cd ions and form stable complexes on soil colloids (Pukalchik et al. 2017; He et al. 2019; Qiu et al. 2021). However, the effectiveness of soil amendments in Cd remediation varies due to differences in composition and their interactions with other soil elements (Zhao et al. 2023; Zhu et al. 2023).

Vegetation is one of the most sensitive indicators of environmental change. Understanding the distribution patterns of biodiversity and its impacts is a basic prerequisite for effective protection and sustainable use (Gacem et al. 2024).

Plant-derived organic carbon, such as lignin, plays a crucial role in metal binding (Sajjadi et al. 2021; Liu et al. 2023). Lignin's functional groups (aliphatic hydroxyl, carbonyl, phenolic hydroxyl) and oxygen's unshared electron pair facilitate metal chelation and form lignin-metal complexes (Sun et al. 2018; Liu et al. 2022). These mechanisms collectively contribute to the reduction of Cd mobility and bioavailability in soil, ultimately benefiting plant growth and reducing Cd accumulation in crops.

The present study demonstrated the potential of organic amendments, specifically peanut and walnut shells, in mitigating cadmium (Cd) toxicity in soil and enhancing plant growth. These materials effectively reduced Cd bioavailability, as evidenced by improved plant physiological parameters. Although sunflower and pea shells show some significant ameliorative effects, the results underscore the importance of organic matter composition in determining the efficacy of amendment application. Further investigations are warranted to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of Cd immobilization by these organic materials and to optimize their application rates for sustainable soil remediation.

Conflicts of Interest

The work described here has not been published previously, and is not under consideration for another journal. No conflict of interest exists in the submission of this manuscript. The manuscript is approved by all the authors for publication.

Ethics declarations

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.

Funding

This research study was supported by the Algerian Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research.

Author Contribution

"H.S. designed the study. R.G. and N.T. analyzed results and wrote the manuscript; H.S. selected the cultivar, maintained plant material in the experimental field, wrote a part of the manuscript; R.G. and N.T. performed some the experiments. H.S contributed to analyses and interpretation of results.All authors reviewed the manuscrip"t.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks for the Laboratory of Plant Biology, Faculty of Exact Sciences and Natural and Life Sciences, University of Tebessa for providing necessary facilities and also technical staffs and students for their high commitment and cooperation in conducting the research.

Data availability statement

The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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Organic Amendments Improved wheat Growth in Cd-Contaminated Soil

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Abstract

Background and Aims

Methods

Results

Conclusions

Figures

Introduction

Materials and Methods

Seed Material

Preparation of organic amendments

Experimental conditions

Morphological and physio-biochemical analysis

Germination rate

Kinetics of germination

Speed of germination

Emergence rate

Measurement of length

Relative water content (RWC)

Foliar surface

SF = (π × a × b) / 4

Measurement of membrane integrity

Membrane stability index

MSI = [1 - (C1/C2)] × 100

Protein content

Soluble sugars

Proline content

Statistical analysis

Results

Discussion

Conclusion

Declarations

Conflicts of Interest

Ethics declarations

Funding

Author Contribution

Acknowledgments

Data availability statement

References

Additional Declarations

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