In our study, we found that cardiovascular death represented a leading factor inducing mortality among USPD patients. Risk factors related to cardiovascular death were advanced age, higher eGFR, combined with DM, and advanced HF stages. After stratification by age and DM, advanced HF stage was a powerful risk factor related to cardiovascular death. Besides, there were different risk factors for cardiovascular death in DM and non-DM or in elderly and non-elderly USPD patients.
Cardiovascular death was the major factor inducing mortality, which occupied 41.4% of total deaths in USPD patients in our study, consistent with the current relevant research. CVDs can greatly threaten human health, which show unexceptionally high morbidity and mortality rates and account for a major factor inducing mortality among ESRD patients19,20. Similar to hemodialysis, nearly 50% of PD deaths are caused by cardiovascular events, and more and more efforts are made to identify modality-specific factors that promote such events21. A study finds that age, blood pressure, body mass index, fasting glucose, serum lipids, sodium, phosphorus, albumin, and total protein are strong predicting factors for cardiovascular death of PD22. Typically, the triglyceride-glucose index contributes to predicting 1-year major adverse cardiovascular events among ESRD patients with concurrent coronary artery disease23. Moreover, IL-6 is the most creditable factor predicting CVD and death among ESRD patients24. USPD is an important option for CKD patients who require urgent kidney replacement, since it is convenient for home-based therapy25. Risk factors in USPD are not entirely consistent with those in the ESRD and routine PD populations, which may be because such patients may delay treatment and experience more serious complications. Health professionals should offer appropriate care and instructions to patients who are making the decision to receive dialysis treatment26. Better education on PD and better control of body weight, blood pressure, fasting glucose, serum lipids, sodium, phosphorus, albumin, and IL-6 may help reduce cardiovascular events in USPD treatment.
HF represents the complicated syndrome resulting from damage to the cardiac structure or function, which is usually the end stage of different CVDs. HF still shows a high prevalence, leads to a high mortality rate, and brings a substantial disease burden worldwide27. Due to the decrease in kidney function, the HF prevalence increases, about 44% of dialysis patients develop HF, while 50% of them experience decrease ejection fraction28. Patients undergoing long-term dialysis are inclined to develop HF and are associated with high mortality and morbidity rates29,30. HF patients on dialysis are linked with dismal prognostic outcome, and the 5-year survival rate is reported to be 12.5%31. According to FIGARO-DKD analysis results, finerenone decreased the newly-onset HF and improved additional HF outcomes among type 2 diabetes and CKD patients32. However, the use of finerenone in ESRD is prohibitive. The mechanism of HF is multiple. Notably, the dysregulated cell death enhances the CVDs pathogenesis, which can be a promising clinical treatment target. ROS generation has been suggested to be tightly associated with cell death, which can promote CVDs genesis and progression19. The impaired mitochondrial bioenergetics is related to HF33. Interventions targeting the mitochondrial bioenergetics and ROS may be meaningful for ESRD patients with HF.
DM represents a rapid-growing disorder globally, and type 2 diabetes mellitus accounts for a major factor inducing kidney failure worldwide34. DM may usually occur with CVDs. Atherosclerosis and progressive immune inflammation are mostly asymptomatic and silent in diabetic patients35. Devastating CVDs and diabetic kidney disease lead to an increased mortality rates, and an overall decreased quality of life in individuals with DM36. PD has been identified as the efficient renal replacement treatment in diabetic patients37. Meanwhile, PD is suitable for patients with concurrent CVDs, since PD patients with and without CVDs share similar laboratory and clinical targets, hospitalizations, peritonitis rates, and technical survivals38. However, coronary artery calcification progresses rapidly among dialysis patients, which leads to a higher risk of death39. The relation of DM with poor cardiovascular prognosis among PD patients involves many factors. Firstly, the poor glycemic control may be incrementally related to the increased mortality among diabetic PD patients40. Secondly, patients with DM exhibit inferior nutritional status, which is associated with all-cause hospitalizations41. Thirdly, insulin resistance is correlated with microvascular and macrovascular consequences, and PD can result in the increased glucose levels, which serves as the continuous insulin-secretagogue stimulus and probably exacerbate insulin resistance among PD patients with DM42. Consequently, it is desirable to lower glucose level in PD solutions and investigate novel hypoglycemic strategies with pharmacological effects without direct insulin injection. For patients with kidney disease and type 2 diabetes, canagliflozin is found to induce a decreased risk of cardiovascular events and kidney failure at the median of 6.2-year follow-up. However, effective drugs for treating diabetic ESRD are lacking34. At present, no evidence has supported using therapeutic agents like mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist or sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitor for DM in ESRD43. More clinical trials of drugs for improving the prognosis of diabetic ESRD patients are urgently needed.
Advanced age was associated with cardiovascular death among USPD patients in the present work. CVD accounts for the major cause inducing disability and mortality worldwide among the elderly44–46. The same is true for PD patients. Typically, cardiovascular events are the most frequently seen cause of death among elderly PD patients47. Ischemic heart disease is especially a risk factor related to the long-time prognosis in elderly PD patients48. Platelet dysregulation shows an apparently increasing trend with age, which facilitates to make CVD a major factor inducing mortality among the elderly49. Moreover, accidental falls can be quite frequent among PD patients, which may be usually unrecognized. Falls are related to a higher risk of mortality in elderly PD50. The care of elderly patients with PD is particularly important. Of course, the use of cardiovascular medications among elderly patients with PD would be of great importance too. The existing statin therapy is beneficial for primarily preventing adverse results, all-cause death or stroke among Koreans with the age of ≥ 75 years51. In a study, adult patients receiving maintenance hemodialysis, statin therapy, preferably plus ezetimibe, were related to the reduced all-cause mortality risk52. Statin therapy is related to the markedly decreased total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and C-reactive protein levels, but the possible benefits of statin for CVD risk among PD patients are not definitely concluded yet53. More high-quality studies should be conducted for assessing the possible benefits of statin therapy for elderly USPD patients.
The increased eGFR level initiating dialysis was related to cardiovascular death in our study. Similar findings were found in another study showing that initiating PD early was related to the increased cardiovascular death risk in elderly patients54. It is reasonable to speculate that patients starting dialysis at the high eGFR level may be associated with a greater risk of comorbidities. Moreover, a study showed that the higher eGFR level was related to low fluctuation of hemoglobin and led to unfavorable cardiovascular outcome55, which further explained our findings. Baseline eGFR levels vary widely in different PD clinical studies, which may play a role in the heterogeneity of study population. In conclusion, early dialysis has adverse effects on the prognosis of the USPD population.
The present work has the main strengths below. As far as we know, the present work is the first to determine potential risk factors related to cardiovascular death among USPD patients. Nonetheless, there are certain limitations. Firstly, this retrospective study inevitably led to some bias. Secondly, our study did not examine the relation of time-varying values with mortality. Consequently, more large prospective researches regarding the cardiovascular prognostic outcome in USPD patients should be conducted.