The genus Fritillaria, a well-known Chinese traditional medicine used for over 2000 years, is primarily distributed across the temperate regions of China and is one of the threatened genera due to climate change, habitat loss, and excessive harvesting. These perennial bulbous plants are important for their ornamental beauty and traditional medicinal uses. To provide a scientific guide for Fritillaria conservation, this study explores the diversity patterns of 21 species across China using three diversity indices (species richness (SR), weighted endemism (WE), and β-diversity) with a spatial resolution of 100 X 100 km2. The top 5% richness and complementary algorithms were used to identify diversity hotspots and conservation gaps were recognized by overlapping the diversity hotspots with Chinese nature reserves. Our results indicate that Fritillaria SR and WE are high in central and southwestern China, particularly in Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. The β-diversity is scattered across these regions, suggesting different species compositions among grid cells. We identified 145 grids as diversity hotspots for Fritillaria species in China, with significant overlap in Sichuan and Yunnan. The first-level diversity hotspots include over 70% of the Endangered (EN) and Vulnerable (VU) Fritillaria species and are the priority areas for conservation. However, only 24% of the diversity hotspots fall within nature reserves, and many regions, especially in Zhejiang, Guizhou, and Fujian, have less than 20% of diversity hotspots covered by protected areas. Using multiple diversity indices and algorithms, our study identifies critical diversity hotspots and conservation gaps for Fritillaria species in China. These findings provide a scientific basis for targeted conservation strategies to protect these valuable plants and their habitats, particularly in regions with high biodiversity and significant conservation gaps.
Research Article
Spatial patterns and conservation gaps of Fritillaria species in China
https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5293239/v1
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Fritillaria
conservation
biodiversity hotspots
species richness
endemism
The genus Fritillaria comprises approximately 130 to 165 species, primarily distributed across the temperate zones of the Northern Hemisphere, with a significant concentration in Asia, particularly in China. These perennial bulbous plants are not only valued for their ornamental beauty but also hold substantial importance in traditional medicine, especially within Chinese herbal practices. Fritillaria species have been utilized for over 2,000 years in treatments for various ailments, including respiratory diseases, cough, and asthma, due to their bioactive compounds such as alkaloids, which exhibit anti-tussive and expectorant properties (Jiang et al. 2022; Rashid & Yaqoob 2021; Wang et al. 2021). The bulbs of several species, including F. cirrhosa and F. delavayi, are harvested extensively for medicinal purposes, contributing to their economic significance and cultural heritage in regions where they are found (Nile et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2021).
The conservation of plant species, particularly those with significant ecological and medicinal value, has become increasingly critical in the face of global biodiversity loss (Hamilton 2004; Howes et al. 2020; Oguh et al. 2021; Xie et al. 2022). The genus Fritillaria, comprising numerous species native to China, exemplifies this urgency (Day et al. 2014; Kiani et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2010). These perennial bulbous plants not only contribute to the rich tapestry of China's flora but also play a vital role in traditional medicine, where they have been utilized for over two millennia (Da-Cheng et al. 2013; Day et al. 2014; Rashid & Yaqoob 2021). The intricate relationship between Fritillaria species and their ecosystems underscores the need for comprehensive studies that assess their distribution, conservation status, and the factors threatening their survival.
Recent research highlights the alarming trends in biodiversity loss, driven by anthropogenic factors such as habitat destruction, climate change, and over-exploitation (Galewski et al. 2021; Verma et al. 2020). In particular, Fritillaria species are facing heightened risks due to unsustainable harvesting practices for medicinal use (Cunningham et al. 2018; Mathela et al. 2021). This exploitation is compounded by habitat loss resulting from agricultural expansion and urban development, which fragment their natural environments and disrupt ecological processes. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has classified several Fritillaria species as endangered or vulnerable, emphasizing the pressing need for targeted conservation strategies to mitigate these threats (Mathela et al. 2021; Tsegmed et al. 2023). Moreover, understanding the spatial patterns of Fritillaria diversity is crucial for effective conservation planning (Ravikanth et al. 2002; Salem 2003; Zhang et al. 2022). By employing advanced geographic information systems (GIS) and various biodiversity indices, researchers can identify hotspots of species richness and areas with significant conservation gaps. This approach not only facilitates the prioritization of conservation efforts but also aids in the formulation of policies aimed at preserving these invaluable plants and their habitats (Jiang et al. 2022; Nile et al. 2021). The findings from such studies serve as a scientific foundation for developing adaptive management strategies that align with both ecological integrity and human needs.
Despite their ecological and economic importance, many Fritillaria species are facing severe threats that jeopardize their survival. Over-harvesting for medicinal use, habitat loss due to agricultural expansion, urbanization, and climate change are the primary factors contributing to the decline of these species (Jiang et al. 2022; Nile et al. 2021; Wang et al. 2021). For instance, F. cirrhosa, one of the most heavily exploited species, has seen significant population reductions due to unsustainable harvesting practices (Cunningham et al. 2018). Furthermore, habitat fragmentation and degradation have exacerbated the vulnerability of these plants, making them increasingly susceptible to extinction. According to the IUCN Red List, several Fritillaria species are classified as endangered or vulnerable, highlighting the urgent need for effective conservation strategies to protect these valuable plants and their habitats (Wang et al. 2021). The conservation of Fritillaria species in China is a multifaceted challenge that requires an integrated approach encompassing ecological research, policy intervention, and community engagement. The urgency of addressing these issues cannot be overstated, as the loss of these species would not only diminish biodiversity but also erode cultural heritage and traditional medicinal practices that have sustained communities for generations.
The primary objective of this study is to assess the spatial distribution patterns of Fritillaria species across China, identify biodiversity hotspots, and evaluate conservation gaps. By employing a grid-based approach using GIS tools, this research aims to provide a comprehensive analysis of species richness, endemism, and threats to Fritillaria populations. The findings will contribute to the understanding of the ecological dynamics affecting these species and inform conservation strategies aimed at preserving their habitats and mitigating the impacts of anthropogenic pressures. This study is particularly relevant in the context of increasing global biodiversity loss, as it seeks to identify priority areas for conservation efforts that can enhance the sustainability of Fritillaria populations and their ecosystems.
2.1 Study species
In this study, we focused on 21 species of Fritillaria that are listed in the Red List of Higher Plants of China, as assessed in 2024. These species were selected due to their ecological significance and varying conservation statuses. The species included are F. cirrhosa, F. crassicaulis, F. dajinensis, F. davidii, F. delavayi, F. fusca, F. maximowiczii, F. monantha, F. przewalskii, F. sichuanica, F. tortifolia, F. unibracteata, F. verticillata, F. walujewii, F. yuzhongensis, F. karelinii, F. pallidiflora, F. taipaiensis, F. ussuriensis, F. yuminensis, and F. thunbergii. The IUCN categories for these species reflect their conservation status, with ten species classified as Endangered (EN), eight as Vulnerable (VU), and three as Near Threatened (NT). Notably, Fritillaria thunbergii was not estimated (NE) in 2020, indicating the need for further assessment (Table 1).
| Species | 2013 | 2020 |
|---|---|---|
| Fritillaria cirrhosa | NT | NT |
| Fritillaria crassicaulis | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria dajinensis | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria davidii | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria delavayi | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria fusca | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria maximowiczii | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria monantha | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria przewalskii | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria sichuanica | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria tortifolia | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria unibracteata | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria verticillata | NT | NT |
| Fritillaria walujewii | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria yuzhongensis | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria karelinii | LC | NT |
| Fritillaria pallidiflora | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria taipaiensis | EN | EN |
| Fritillaria ussuriensis | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria yuminensis | VU | VU |
| Fritillaria thunbergii | NE | EN |
2.1.1 List of Fritillaria species included in the study
We compiled data from multiple sources that surveyed Fritillaria species and Flora of China (http://www.efloras.org/flora_page.aspx?flora_id=2, accessed on 28.02.2024) regarding species elevational range. According to the references, Fritillaria species have wide elevational range and grows from 100 to 5600 m a.s.l. Following previous references (Asatulloev et al. 2022; Sanders 2002; Vetaas & Grytnes 2002) we divided this elevational range into 56 elevational bands of 100 m. According to this method, a species is assumed to be present in each 100-m elevational band between its upper and lower elevational limits (Currie et al. 2004). For example, F. crassicaulis has elevational range between 3000 and 3400 m. Therefore, it was assumed to occur in 3100, 3200, 3300 m elevation bands in addition its upper and lower range. In the same line, this method was applied to all species in this study.
2.1.2 IUCN categories for each species
All species included in this study were assessed in Red List of Higher Plants of China (2020). The Red List Index utilizes data from the IUCN Red List to monitor patterns in the anticipated overall risk of extinction for groups of species (Butchart et al. 2007a; Butchart et al. 2004). We compiled data from Red List of China (2013) and Red List of Higher Plants of China (2020). Then, following Butchart et al. (2007a), we used the following equation to assess RLI:
Where Wc(t,s) is the weight for category (c) at time (t) for species (s) (the weight for ‘Critically Endangered’ = 4, ‘Endangered’ = 3, ‘Vulnerable’ = 2, ‘Near Threatened’ = 1, ‘Least Concern’ = 0. ‘Critically Endangered’ species tagged as ‘Possibly Extinct’ or ‘Possibly Extinct in the Wild’ are assigned a weight of 5); WEX = 5, the weight assigned to ‘Extinct’ or ‘Extinct in the Wild’ species; and N is the total number of assessed species, excluding those assessed as Data Deficient in the current time period, and those considered to be ‘Extinct’ in the year the set of species was first assessed. In this assessment, index is set till 1 from 0. 1 means no extinction probability while 0 means no survival.
For calculating AOO and EOO, we used GeoCAT (https://geocat.iucnredlist.org/, accessed on 28.02.2024) and followed IUCN guidelines (Bland et al. 2017a) to calculate them for each species (Table 2).
| Species | AOO (km2, default was 2 km2) | EOO (km2) |
|---|---|---|
| F. ussuriensis | 2 | NA |
| F. yuminensis | 2 | NA |
| F. verticillata | 2 | NA |
| F. przewalskii | 2 | NA |
| F. tortifolia | 2 | NA |
| F. karelinii | 2 | NA |
| F. dajinensis | 2 | NA |
| F. davidii | 12 | 1514.648 |
| F. pallidiflora | 12 | 246.106 |
| F. fusca | 16 | 12869.445 |
| F. crassicaulis | 24 | 52832.764 |
| F. yuzhongensis | 24 | 338064 |
| F. taipaiensis | 24 | 130238 |
| F. maximowiczii | 28 | 536720 |
| F. sichuanica | 32 | 128.172 |
| F. walujewii | 32 | 79963.842 |
| F. thunbergii | 36 | 36536 |
| F. monantha | 84 | 486817 |
| F. delavayi | 84 | 486817 |
| F. unibracteata | 228 | 1177064 |
| F. cirrhosa | 316 | 1914974.493 |
| *NA – unable to estimate | ||
2.2 Study area and species richness
China, with its vast and diverse geographical landscape, was chosen as the study area for this research. The country spans a range of climates and elevations, from the subarctic regions in the north to tropical areas in the south, and includes the world’s highest peaks in the Himalayas. This topographical diversity creates a variety of ecological niches, making China a hotspot for plant biodiversity, including numerous endemic species of Fritillaria (Li et al. 2018). The climatic and environmental gradients across China significantly influence the distribution and richness of plant species, thereby providing an ideal setting for studying the spatial patterns of Fritillaria species.
2.2.1 Division of China into 100 × 100 km² grids using ArcGIS
To assess the distribution patterns of Fritillaria species, the geographic area of China was systematically divided into a grid of 100 X 100 km2 cells using ArcGIS (version 10.8). This grid-based approach allows for a structured analysis of species distribution and richness across the country. In total, 1102 grid cells were generated, of which 145 contained at least one species of Fritillaria. The grid division followed established methodologies for ecological studies, ensuring that each cell represented a manageable spatial unit for analysis (Bhatta et al. 2020; Shrestha et al. 2018).
2.2.2 Calculation of species richness within each grid
Species richness within each grid cell was calculated by counting the number of Fritillaria species present. This method involved transferring the distribution data of threatened plants into the grid format, allowing for a clear visualization of species richness across the landscape. Grid cells with less than 50% coverage of their spatial area by Fritillaria species were excluded from further analyses to maintain the integrity of the data (Bhatta et al. 2020; Shrestha et al. 2018). The resulting species richness map was created using ArcGIS, providing a visual representation of biodiversity hotspots for Fritillaria across China. This quantitative assessment of species richness is crucial for identifying areas that require targeted conservation efforts and for understanding the ecological dynamics influencing Fritillaria distribution.
3.1 Elevation and species richness
The elevation of China exhibits a remarkable range, varying from 156 meters to 8424 meters above sea level. This diverse topography is crucial for understanding the distribution of Fritillaria species, which thrive in a wide elevational range from 100 to 5600 meters. The elevation map illustrates the complex interplay between altitude and biodiversity, highlighting regions where Fritillaria species are predominantly found (Fig. 1A).
The analysis of species richness in relation to elevation reveals distinct patterns. The highest species richness for Fritillaria occurs within the elevational range of 1500 to 2500 meters, where 7 to 9 species are commonly found (Fig. 1B). As elevation increases beyond 2600 meters, species richness declines, with only 4 to 6 species recorded in the 2600 to 4400 meter range. This trend suggests that mid-elevation zones provide optimal conditions for Fritillaria growth, likely due to favorable climate and habitat characteristics that support higher biodiversity. The findings align with previous studies indicating that species richness often peaks at intermediate elevations, a phenomenon known as the hump-shaped pattern (Currie et al., 2004).
To further investigate Fritillaria species distribution, China was divided into a grid of 100 X 100 km2 cells using ArcGIS (version 10.8). This grid-based analysis identified a total of 1102 grid cells, of which 145 contained at least one species of Fritillaria. The species richness within these grids varied significantly, with concentrations observed in central and southwestern China, particularly in the Sichuan and Yunnan provinces (Fig. 1C). The species richness values ranged from 1 to 38 records per grid cell, indicating that these regions are critical biodiversity hotspots for Fritillaria. The distribution patterns highlight areas where conservation efforts should be prioritized, as many of the high-richness grids overlap with regions known for their ecological significance and endemic species presence.
These results underscore the importance of elevation in shaping the distribution of Fritillaria species and provide a foundation for targeted conservation strategies aimed at preserving biodiversity in these critical regions.
3.2 IUCN categories and Red List Index
The assessment of Fritillaria species based on IUCN categories in 2020 revealed a concerning conservation status for many species. Out of the 21 species evaluated, ten were classified as EN, eight as VU, and three as NT. Notably, F. thunbergii was categorized as Not Estimated (NE), indicating insufficient data for a proper assessment. The detailed classification is presented in Table 1, which outlines the IUCN categories for each species in both 2013 and 2020. The persistence of EN and VU classifications for several species over this period underscores the ongoing threats they face, primarily due to habitat loss, over-exploitation for medicinal use, and climate change. The data indicate that the conservation status of these species has not improved, highlighting the urgent need for targeted conservation efforts.
3.3 Calculation of RLI between 2013 and 2020 assessments
The RLI was calculated to evaluate changes in extinction risk for the selected Fritillaria species between 2013 and 2020. The RLI decreased from 0.55 in 2013 to 0.54 in 2020, reflecting a slight increase in overall extinction risk over the seven-year period. This decline suggests a worsening conservation status, as indicated by the persistent threats faced by these species. The RLI is derived from the IUCN categories, where weights are assigned based on the conservation status: Critically Endangered (4), Endangered (3), Vulnerable (2), Near Threatened (1), and Least Concern (0). The calculation also considers the weight for extinct species, set at 5. The RLI serves as a critical indicator of the overall health of Fritillaria populations and highlights the need for enhanced conservation strategies to address the increasing risks of extinction
These findings emphasize the critical situation of Fritillaria species in China and underscore the importance of implementing effective conservation measures to protect these valuable plants from further decline. The ongoing assessment of their conservation status is essential for informing future conservation policies and actions.
3.4 Calculation of AOO and EOO for each species ssing GeoCAT
The AOO and EOO for each Fritillaria species were calculated using the GeoCAT tool, adhering to IUCN guidelines. The AOO values varied significantly among the species, ranging from a minimum of 2 km² to a maximum of 316 km². Notably, several species, including F. ussuriensis, F. yuminensis, F. verticillata, F. przewalskii, F. tortifolia, F. karelinii, and F. dajinensis, F. ussuriensis, F. yuminensis, F. verticillata, F. przewalskii, F. tortifolia, F. karelinii, and F. dajinensis, had an AOO of 2 km², indicating very limited distribution. In contrast, F. unibracteata and F. cirrhosa exhibited the largest AOOs, with values of 228 km² and 316 km², respectively. The EOO values, reflecting the overall geographic distribution of each species, also varied widely, with F. cirrhosa having the highest EOO at approximately 1,914,974 km², while several species did not have estimable EOO values due to insufficient data. The detailed AOO and EOO results are summarized in Table 2.
The AOO and EOO values for the 21 Fritillaria species are presented in Table 2. This table highlights the disparities in both AOO and EOO, emphasizing the varying conservation statuses and habitat availability for each species. The results illustrate that while some species have a broad geographic range, others are severely restricted, underscoring the need for tailored conservation strategies.
3.5 Identification of top 5% hotspots based on species richness
The analysis identified the top 5% hotspots for Fritillaria species richness across China, revealing significant concentrations in central and southwestern regions, particularly in Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. These hotspots exhibit species richness values ranging from 14 to 38 records per grid cell, indicating areas of exceptional biodiversity. The results highlight that these regions are critical for conservation efforts due to their high levels of species richness and the presence of numerous endemic species.
The spatial distribution of species richness hotspots is illustrated in Fig. 3. The map shows a clear gradient of species richness, with darker areas indicating higher concentrations of Fritillaria species. The highest richness values are concentrated in specific locales within Sichuan and Yunnan, emphasizing the ecological significance of these regions. This spatial analysis not only underscores the importance of these hotspots for biodiversity conservation but also provides a framework for prioritizing conservation actions in areas where Fritillaria species are most at risk. The findings from the AOO and EOO calculations, alongside the identification of species richness hotspots, underscore the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies to protect Fritillaria species and their habitats in China.
3.6 Weighted endemism hotspots
The analysis identified the top 5% hotspots based on weighted endemism, revealing significant concentrations in central and southwestern China, particularly in Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. The weighted endemism values ranged from 0.018 to 1.263, with the highest values indicating regions rich in endemic Fritillaria species. The scale bar illustrates a gradient from lower to higher endemism, emphasizing areas of critical conservation importance. The spatial distribution of weighted endemism hotspots is presented in Fig. 4. The map highlights the central and southwestern regions of China, where the highest weighted endemism values are concentrated. These areas are crucial for the conservation of endemic species, as they harbor unique genetic diversity and contribute to the overall biodiversity of Fritillaria.
3.7 β-Diversity hotspots
The β-diversity hotspots, representing the turnover of Fritillaria species across different regions, were identified and mapped. These hotspots are predominantly located in central and southwestern China, with significant clusters in Sichuan, Yunnan, and Guizhou provinces. The β-diversity values ranged from 0.217 to 1.000, indicating varying levels of species turnover across these regions. Higher β-diversity values suggest greater ecological complexity and variation, making these areas critical for biodiversity conservation. The spatial distribution of β-diversity hotspots is illustrated in Fig. 5. The map shows regions with significant species turnover, emphasizing the ecological diversity present in central and southwestern China. The identified hotspots highlight areas where conservation efforts should focus to maintain and enhance biodiversity.
3.8 Combined hotspots (complementary algorithm)
The combined hotspots, identified using a complementary algorithm, encompass regions with high species richness, weighted endemism, and β-diversity. These combined hotspots are primarily located in central and southwestern China, with significant overlap in Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. The integration of these metrics provides a comprehensive view of biodiversity hotspots, indicating areas of utmost conservation priority. The spatial distribution of combined hotspots is depicted in Fig. 6. The map illustrates regions where all three metrics converge, highlighting areas with significant biodiversity and conservation value. The scale bar for species richness aids in visualizing the areas of highest priority for conservation actions. These results collectively underscore the importance of central and southwestern China as critical regions for Fritillaria conservation, emphasizing the need for targeted strategies to protect these biodiversity hotspots. The identification of weighted endemism, β-diversity, and combined hotspots provides valuable insights for conservation planning and prioritization in these ecologically significant areas.
4.1 Significance of central and southwestern China as biodiversity hotspots for Fritillaria
The results of this study highlight the central and southwestern regions of China, particularly Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, as critical biodiversity hotspots for Fritillaria species. The high SR observed in these areas is consistent with previous findings that emphasize the ecological significance of mountainous regions in fostering plant diversity (Jiang et al. 2022). The concentration of Fritillaria SR, which ranged from 14 to 38 species per grid cell, aligns with the patterns observed in other studies that identify similar regions as biodiversity hotspots due to their unique climatic and topographical conditions (Currie et al. 2004; Shrestha et al. 2018). The importance of targeted conservation strategies in these biodiversity-rich areas cannot be overstated. With ten species classified as EN and eight as VU, the conservation status of many Fritillaria species remains precarious. The ongoing threats from habitat loss, over-exploitation, and climate change necessitate immediate action to safeguard these populations (Bland et al. 2017b; Rodrigues et al. 2006). Our findings reveal significant conservation gaps, particularly in regions with high species richness and endemism that lack formal protection. This underscores the need for enhanced conservation measures and the establishment of new protected areas to encompass these critical habitats.
Validation of hotspot identification using both the top 5% richness algorithm and complementary algorithms further strengthens the reliability of our findings. The complementary algorithm proved particularly effective in identifying priority conservation areas, as it encompasses a broader range of species within fewer grid cells, thereby optimizing resource allocation for conservation efforts (Asatulloyev et al. 2022). This approach aligns with recommendations from previous studies advocating for multi-faceted conservation strategies that incorporate various biodiversity indices to ensure comprehensive protection of threatened species (Zhao et al. 2023). This study provides a robust framework for understanding the spatial distribution of Fritillaria species in China and emphasizes the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies in central and southwestern regions. By integrating multiple metrics such as SR, WE, and β-diversity, we offer valuable insights for policymakers and conservationists aiming to protect these ecologically significant areas effectively.
The spatial patterns of Fritillaria SR, WE, and β-diversity identified in this study reveal critical insights into the ecological dynamics of these plants in China. Central and southwestern regions, particularly Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, emerged as biodiversity hotspots characterized by high species richness and significant endemism. This finding corroborates earlier research that emphasizes the role of these areas as centers of plant diversity due to their unique climatic and topographical conditions (Jiang et al. 2022; Shrestha et al. 2018). The color-coded scale bars used in our analysis effectively illustrate the gradients of SR and endemism, facilitating the identification of priority regions for conservation efforts. The overlay of provincial boundaries and nature reserves with biodiversity metrics highlights the urgent need for enhanced conservation measures. Despite the presence of protected areas, many high-diversity regions remain unprotected, exposing Fritillaria species to threats such as habitat loss and over-exploitation (Bland et al. 2017b; Butchart et al. 2007b). The identification of significant conservation gaps aligns with findings from (Zhao et al. 2023), which emphasize the necessity of expanding protected area networks to encompass regions identified as biodiversity hotspots.
Prioritizing unprotected hotspots for formal protection measures is essential for mitigating biodiversity loss. The integration of these gap areas into conservation plans is supported by literature advocating for targeted strategies that focus on regions with high ecological significance (Asatulloyev et al. 2022). Our results indicate that many unprotected hotspots harbor a substantial proportion of endemic Fritillaria species, underscoring their importance for conservation planning.
Furthermore, the use of both the top 5% richness algorithm and complementary algorithms validates our hotspot identification process. The complementary algorithm's ability to encompass a broader range of species within fewer grid cells enhances its effectiveness in identifying priority conservation areas (Currie et al. 2004). This methodological approach aligns with recommendations from previous studies advocating for multi-faceted conservation strategies that incorporate various biodiversity indices to ensure comprehensive protection of threatened species (Zhao et al. 2023). This study provides a robust framework for understanding the spatial distribution of Fritillaria species in China and emphasizes the urgent need for targeted conservation strategies in central and southwestern regions. By integrating multiple metrics such as SR, WE, and β-diversity, we offer valuable insights for policymakers and conservationists aiming to protect these ecologically significant areas effectively.
This study provides a comprehensive assessment of the spatial distribution patterns and conservation status of Fritillaria species in China, highlighting the critical importance of central and southwestern regions, particularly Sichuan and Yunnan provinces, as biodiversity hotspots. Our findings reveal significant concentrations of species richness, weighted endemism, and β-diversity, underscoring the ecological significance of these areas for Fritillaria conservation. The analysis indicates that many Fritillaria species are facing increasing threats due to habitat loss, over-exploitation, and climate change, with ten species classified as Endangered (EN) and eight as Vulnerable (VU). The identification of substantial conservation gaps—particularly in regions with high biodiversity that lack formal protection—emphasizes the urgent need for enhanced conservation efforts.
To effectively safeguard these valuable species and their habitats, we recommend prioritizing unprotected hotspots for formal protection measures. Integrating these gap areas into conservation plans will be essential for mitigating biodiversity loss and ensuring the sustainability of Fritillaria populations. Furthermore, employing a combination of biodiversity indices and algorithms can provide a robust framework for identifying priority areas for conservation actions. In conclusion, this research not only contributes to the understanding of Fritillaria distribution in China but also serves as a vital resource for policymakers and conservationists. By addressing the identified conservation gaps and implementing targeted strategies, we can enhance the preservation of Fritillaria species and their ecosystems in the face of ongoing environmental challenges.
Author Contribution
The study was conceived and designed by F.U., S.S. and X.Y. Data was analyzed by F.U., S.S., and A.T.. The first draft of the MS was wrote by, F.U., S.S., and reviewed by X.Y., the manuscript with significant input from all authors. All authors provided intellectual input and edited the manuscript.
Acknowledgements
This research was financially sponsored by National Key R&D Program of China (2023YFF1304305), Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (lzujbky-2024-kb0x), Foreign Youth Talent Program of the Ministry of Science and Technology (QN2023175001L) and “111” Program (BP0719040 and D23029). Dr Fazal Ullah was partly funded by Gansu Natural Science Foundation Program (2024).
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No competing interests reported.