Incorporation of different particle-size peanut shell powder in wheat flour: effect on the dough and cookie characteristics

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5299610/v1

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Incorporation of different particle-size peanut shell powder in wheat flour: effect on the dough and cookie characteristics

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5299610/v1

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Peanuts are the most produced and processed industrial crops worldwide. Therefore, a considerable amount of waste is generated during its processing. In this study, the effect of peanut shells ground to different sizes (212, 500, and 800 µm) on the physical, chemical, techno-functional, and textural properties of cookies was investigated. The hardness of the dough increased and the stickiness and the dough strength decreased as the particle size decreased; however, no significant differences were observed in the textural parameters between the doughs obtained with 500 µm and 800 µm aperture-sized peanut shell powder. The addition of peanut shells to cookies was found to increase the crude fiber content by 85-100-fold, the total phenolic content by 1.5-1.8-fold, and the antioxidant activity by 2-2.4-fold. The incorporation of peanut shell powder in cookies decreased the thickness by 8–15% but increased the spread ratio by 18–33% compared to the control cookies. The hardness and the fracturability of cookies decreased by about 27–47% and 1–5%, respectively, as the particle size of peanut shell powder increased. The results suggest that peanut shells could be a noteworthy source of fiber and phenolic compounds in functional cookie production.

Peanut shells

Mixograph

Texture

Bioactive properties

The Food and Agriculture Organization reported that global peanut production was around 54 million tons in 2022 [1]. It is believed that peanuts, commonly referred to as goober or groundnuts, originated in Central and South America. Nowadays, more than 300 varieties of peanuts are grown worldwide, including in China, India, Africa, Japan, South America, and the United States. Production of peanuts results in the generation of agricultural residues and by-products, including peanut meal, skin, vine, and hull [2]. Peanut shells, also known as hulls, make up approximately 20% of the weight of peanuts. They have a fibrous and lignocellulosic structure containing 45% cellulose, 6% hemicellulose, and 36% lignin [3]. Lignocellulosic biomass, which primarily consists of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, is reported to be a potential ingredient for several industries such as food, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, etc. due to its bioactive properties [4]. Recently, there has been a growing interest in lignin due to its functional and bioactive properties which could make it a potential food ingredient [5, 6] and food packaging agent [7]. Cellulose and its derivatives have been widely used in various applications as emulsion and foam stabilizers, fat replacers, edible coating materials, and encapsulation materials. Moreover, cellulose has beneficial health effects associated with hypoglycemic activity, hypolipidemic activity, and intestinal system function [8].

In addition to their fiber qualities, the antioxidant qualities of agricultural wastes add to their potential uses. Especially, plant cell wall polysaccharides draw attention for being natural, inexpensive, and potentially bioactive carbohydrates [9]. Polyphenolic compounds, which are well-known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, are one of the main components of the dietary fiber complex together with the cell wall polysaccharides, and these two components are reported to have the possibility of interacting with each other. Although the interaction mechanism is not fully known yet, it is predicted that while polyphenols may serve as a natural preservative in foods, cell wall components, on the other hand, may ensure the controlled release of polyphenols in the human digestive system by protecting them [10, 11]. Phenolic compounds in the peanut shell were the dominant substances responsible for the antioxidant activity [12]. Luteolin, 5,7-dihydroxychromone, eriodictyol, and 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavanone found in the peanut shell were reported to show strong antioxidant effects [13]. Peanut shells were also found to exhibit strong antibacterial activity against carcinogenic bacteria by adversely affecting the plasma membrane permeability and the DNA content [14].

Agricultural wastes can be significant sources of valuable functional compounds that can be recovered and reused in the food composition. The wastes of peanuts contain many functional compounds such as protein, fiber, and polyphenols and can be included as functional ingredients in processed foods. Among the wastes, peanut skin or its extract was commonly utilized in processed foods such as salami [15], tea [16], chocolate [17], noodles [18], and cookies [19]. However, to the best of our knowledge, up to now, no study has been presented regarding the valorization of peanut shells, which is a good source of lignocellulosic material, in food composition. This study aims to investigate the utilization of peanut shell powders ground to different sizes as a source of fiber and antioxidants in cookie production.

Material

Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) shells were donated from a local peanut facility. Flour (Sinangil, Türkiye), castor sugar (Dr. Oetker, Türkiye), fat (Sana, Türkiye), and baking powder (Dr. Oetker, Türkiye) were purchased from a local market. All the chemicals used were of analytical grade (Sigma-Aldrich, Germany).

Methods

Preparation of peanut shell

The peanut shells (PS) were ground into powder with a coffee grinder (Russell Hobbs, 23120-56, China) and divided into portions of 100 g. Then each portion of PS powder (PSP) was shaken with a sieving machine (Çeliktest, Türkiye) by using different aperture sizes of sieves (1000, 800, 500, and 212 µm) for 5 min. The materials that remained on each sieve were weighed and the yield was calculated as a percentage by dividing the mass of the material on each sieve by the mass of the total amount obtained. The samples that remained on each sieve were coded depending on the aperture size as PSP10, PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 for the sieves with 1000, 800, 500, and 212 µm, respectively. The sample that passed through the sieve of 212 µm was named as PSP < 2.

Analyses of wheat flour (WF) and peanut shell powder (PSP)

Thermo-mechanical properties

The Mixolab® (Choppin Technologies, France) at Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University Scientific and Technological Research Application and Research Center was used to analyze the thermo-mechanical behaviors of dough samples made with 50 g of WF or WF-PSP blends. The standard Chopin + protocol was used, with the following settings: the mixing speed was 80 min^− 1, the initial temperature was 30°C for 8 min, then the dough was heated gradually at 4°C/min until the temperature reached 90°C. After that, the dough was held at 90°C for 7 min and cooled to 50°C at the rate of 4°C/min. Subsequently, the dough was held at 50°C for 5 min. The analysis was carried out for each sample at constant water absorption (57.3%). The process was repeated twice and the dough stability, starch gelatinization speed, retrogradation index, and viscosity index were evaluated [20].

Water and oil absorption capacities

The method of Marchetti et al. [21] was performed to determine the water (WAC) and oil absorption capacities (OAC) of all PSP samples and WF. Briefly, 1 g of the sample was mixed with 10 ml of water or oil. Then, the mixture was centrifuged (Nuve NF 800R, Ankara, Türkiye) at 3000 x g for 20 min after holding at room temperature (25 ± 1°C) for 30 min. The pellets were weighed, and the results were expressed as g water or oil per g of sample. Experiments were performed in four replicates.

Chemical analyses

The moisture (934-01), ash (923-03), protein (960 − 52), and lipid (920 − 39) content of PSP samples, WF, and cookies were determined according to AOAC [22]. ICC's method [23] was carried out for the determination of crude fiber content. The neutral detergent (NDF), acid detergent (ADF), and acid detergent lignin (ADL) contents were determined with an Ankom Fibre Analyzer (Model 200, Ankom Technology, NY) according to the Ankom Operator’s Manual. Cellulose content was calculated by subtracting the amount of ADL from ADF. Hemicellulose content was obtained by calculating the difference between NDF and ADF [24].

The extraction of samples for total soluble polyphenol content (TPC) and antioxidant activity (AA) analyses was performed according to the method of Meng et al. [25] with slight modifications. Samples were weighed (1 g) and mixed with 20 ml of 80% methanol. The mixtures were shaken at room temperature for 3 hours and then centrifuged (Nuve NF 800R, Ankara, Türkiye) at 4100 rpm for 30 min. The supernatants were filtered through 4–12 µm pore-sized filter papers, and maintained at -20°C until being analyzed. TPC of the sample extracts was determined with Folin–Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent method by measuring the absorbance with a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800, Kyoto, Japan) at 750 nm [26]. The results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalent per gram sample (mg GAE/g sample) by using a calibration curve (y = 5.218x – 0.036, R² = 0.997) obtained with gallic acid (35–65 mg/L). The method of Meng et al. [25] was slightly modified to perform antioxidant activity analysis. The radical scavenging activity of the sample extracts was determined by mixing 1 ml of sample extract with 4 ml of 75 µM 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and measuring the absorbance of the mixture with a spectrophotometer (Shimadzu UV-1800, Kyoto, Japan) at 516 nm after incubating it at room temperature in a dark place for 30 min. Trolox (10–140 µM) was used to generate a calibration curve (y = 0.558x – 0.710, R² = 1.000) and the results were given as mg Trolox equivalent per gram sample (mg TE/g sample).

Preparation of cookies

The basic formulation consisted of 100 g wheat flour (WF), 50 g castor sugar, 38 g fat, 0.5 g baking powder, and 20 mL water. WF was replaced with PSPs (PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2) at a concentration of 15% on a weight basis for the other formulations. The fat and sugar were creamed in a mixer (Prochef Xl, Schafer, Germany) at medium speed for 4 min. After that, the WF or WF-PSP blends and baking powder were added and mixed for 4 min. Water (55°C) was added to the mixture and mixed for 2 min. The prepared dough was manually sheeted to a thickness of 4 mm and then the sheet was cut to 4.5 cm in diameter by using a die. Finally, they were baked in a preheated oven (9625 PI, Arçelik, Türkiye) at 180°C for 20 min. The baked cookies were allowed to cool to room temperature (25 ± 1°C) [27]. Cookies containing PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 were coded as CS8, CS5, and CS2, respectively.

Analyses of cookies

Texture analysis of cookie dough

The texture characteristics of cookie dough were measured using a TA.XT Plus (Stable Micro Systems, UK) equipped with a 5 kg load cell. The dough was allowed to rest for 15 min in a 50 mL glass beaker. A penetration test was conducted with a cylindrical probe (2 mm in diameter) at a distance of 10 mm and a test speed of 0.5 mm/s to measure the dough firmness (N) [28]. Stickiness (N) and strength/cohesiveness (mm) of dough samples were measured with a Chen-Hoseney Dough Stickiness Rig (A/DSC). The test speed was 0.5 mm/s and the trigger force was 40 g [29]. The measurements were replicated eight times. Dough samples containing PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 were coded as DS8, DS5, and DS2, respectively.

Chemical analyses

Proximate composition, TPC, and AA were performed according to the procedures given in section 2.2.2.3. The crude fiber content [23] of the cookies was analyzed after removing the lipids by petroleum ether extraction.

Spread ratio

The diameter and thickness of 10 cookies for each production were measured using a digital Vernier caliper at two and four different places, respectively. The spread ratio was calculated by dividing the average value of the diameter by the average value of the thickness of the cookies [30].

Texture analysis

The hardness (N) and fracturability (mm) of cookies were measured using a TA.XT Plus (Stable Micro Systems, UK) equipped with a 3-Point Bending Rig (HDP/3PB) and a 5 kg load cell. The test parameters were as follows: distance of 10 mm, trigger force of 50 g, pre-test speed of 1.0 mm/s, test speed of 3.0 mm/s, and post-test speed of 10.0 mm/s [31]. The measurements were replicated eight times.

Statistical analysis

Significant differences between the samples were determined by performing an Analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SAS System Software (SAS OnDemand for Academics). Significant parameters were evaluated by Duncan’s multiple range test at the 95% confidence level. Two batches of cookies were produced for each formulation and analyses were run in duplicate samples for each batch. The results were given as mean ± standard deviation.

Properties of PSP and WF

Proximate composition, water and oil absorption capacities of WF and PSP samples and percentage yield of PSP fractions are given in Table 1. The moisture content of WF was observed to be significantly (P < 0.05) lower than those of PSP samples except PSP < 2. It was determined that WF had the highest protein content (P < 0.05), and the lowest ash, crude fiber WAC, and OAC values (P < 0.05). The highest lipid content was observed for PSP < 2 (P < 0.05), however, the lipid content of WF was higher than those of the other PSP fractions (P < 0.05). The smaller particle size resulted in an increase in the protein, lipid, and ash content of PSP fractions, prominently for PSP2 and PSP < 2, and a decrease in the crude fiber content on the other hand. Compared to this study, Abdulrazak et al. [32], Feng et al. [33], and Imran et al. [34] determined higher protein, crude fiber, and ash content but lower lipid values for the unfractionated peanut shell samples. It is well known that the nutritional composition of plants can be changed depending on environmental factors (growth conditions, season, climate, etc.), or genotype [35, 36].

Table 1

Characteristics of wheat flour and different particle-sized peanut shell powders
	WF	PSP	PSP10	PSP8	PSP5	PSP2	PSP < 2
Moisture (% dw)	6.227^d ± 0.054	8.103^a ± 0.076	7.527^b ± 0.229	7.878^a ± 0.233	7.966^a ± 0.095	7.245^c ± 0.126	5.764^e ± 0.110
Protein (% dw)	11.145^a ± 0.078	2.940^d ± 0.085	2.000^f ± 0.085	2.160^e ± 0.042	2.160^e ± 0.042	4.410^c ± 0.042	6.845^b ± 0.049
Lipid (% dw)	2.102^b ± 0.235	1.786^c ± 0.210	0.364^f ± 0.041	0.933^e ± 0.034	0.876^e ± 0.050	1.484^d ± 0.130	3.550^a ± 0.045
Ash (% dw)	0.617^e ± 0.017	1.725^c ± 0.009	1.489^d ± 0.017	1.452^d ± 0.106	1.459^d ± 0.040	2.440^b ± 0.050	3.805^a ± 0.061
Crude fiber (% dw)	0.199^e ± 0.005	40.018^b ± 0.827	43.254^a ± 0.952	43.498^a ± 0.165	42.974^a ± 0.173	36.728^c ± 0.348	30.945^d ± 0.446
OAC (g/g, dw)	0.804^f ± 0.007	2.454^c ± 0.021	2.487^c ± 0.038	2.155^d ± 0.057	2.065^e ± 0.050	3.389^b ± 0.048	3.880^a ± 0.042
WAC (g/g, dw)	0.731^e ± 0.010	4.888^c ± 0.194	4.928^c ± 0.166	4.504^d ± 0.235	4.599^d ± 0.056	6.156^b ± 0.063	6.842^a ± 0.236
Yield (%)	-	-	18.177^c ± 1.044	22.600^b ± 1.395	32.417^a ± 0.869	21.755^b ± 0.879	5.051^d ± 1.878
Different superscript lowercase letters in the same row represent significant differences (P < 0.05). WF: wheat flour; PSP: Peanut shell powder; PSP10, PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 are the PSP portions that remain on a sieve with an aperture size of 1000, 800, 500, and 212 µm, respectively, while PSP < 2 is the portion that passed through the sieve with an aperture size of 212 µm

The WAC and OAC values were found significantly higher (P < 0.05) for the smaller particle-sized PSP fractions (Table 1). The WAC (4.9 g/g) and OAC (2.5 g/g) values obtained for the PSP sample were higher than the findings of Collins and Post [37] and Wang et al. [38] who determined the values as 3.1 g/g and 1.7 g/g, and 1.26 g/g and 1.88 g/g, respectively. The high OAC and WAC are indicators of the presence of higher amounts of apolar amino acids and hydrophilic carbohydrates in the flour [39]. The water absorption of flour is affected by the protein content, the amount of damaged starch, and the presence of non-starch carbohydrates [40], and it influences the functional and sensory properties of the foods [41].

According to the sieve analysis results, it was observed that the highest yield was obtained from PSP5 (32.4%), followed by PSP8 (22.6%) and PSP2 (21.8%), respectively. The yield values for the other sieves were found to be below 20% (Table 1). Therefore, for cookie production, the process continued with PSP2, PSP5, and PSP8. NDF, ADF, and ADL contents of selected PSP fractions were determined and are shown in Table 2. NDF represents the total amount of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, cutin, and insoluble minerals in the cell wall, whereas ADF refers to cellulose, lignin, cutin, and insoluble minerals [42, 43]. On the other hand, ADL shows just the lignin content. The values of the PSP fractions for NDF, ADF, and ADL were in the range of 76.82–86.86%, 67.10–74.10%, and 29.52–32.22, respectively. The highest values were observed for PSP5, and the differences between the samples were statistically significant (P < 0.05) except for the NDF values of PSP8 and PSP2. In terms of cellulose, PSP2 had substantially (P < 0.05) lower values than that of PSP8 and PSP5. No significant differences were observed for the hemicellulose content of different particle-sized PSPs. Rico et al. [44] determined higher lignin (42.68%) and hemicellulose (19.03%) but lower cellulose (20.87%) contents for peanut shells than those of the values found in this study (Table 2). The lignin content of PSP fractions was compatible with the results found by Husna and Vasantharuba [45], however, they observed higher hemicellulose (18.1%) and lower cellulose (34.2%) content compared to values in our study. Environmental and developmental factors are reported to be the main issues that may affect the amount of these lignocellulosic materials in a plant [46]. Furthermore, the cellulose content was calculated in our study by subtracting the lignin content (ADL) from the ADF value [24]. However, low amounts of cutin and insoluble minerals content of ADF [42, 43] may be the reason for obtaining higher cellulose values in this study.

Table 2

Fiber analyses of peanut shell powder fractions
	PSP8	PSP5	PSP2
NDF (%)	80.425^b ± 0.085	86.862^a ± 2.363	76.818^b ± 0.520
ADF (%)	72.114^b ± 0.187	74.019^a ± 0.347	67.098^c ± 0.206
ADL (%)	31.157^b ± 0.134	32.217^a ± 0.131	29.518^c ± 0.489
Cellulose (%)	40.957^a ± 0.052	41.802^a ± 0.478	37.580^b ± 0.695
Hemicellulose (%)	8.311 ± 0.272	12.844 ± 2.710	9.721 ± 0.726
Different superscript lowercase letters in the same row represent significant differences (P < 0.05). NDF: neutral detergent fiber; ADF: acid detergent fiber; ADL: acid detergent lignin. PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 are the PSP portions that remain on a sieve with an aperture size of 800, 500, and 212 µm, respectively

As shown in Fig. 1a, there were substantial differences (P < 0.05) between the TPC and antioxidant capacity of WF and PSP samples. PSP with the finest particles had the highest values, and compared to WF, the TPC and antioxidant capacity of PSP2 were approximately 40 times and more than 200 times higher, respectively. While there were no significant differences between the TPC values of PSP8 and PSP5, the antioxidant capacity of PSP8 was determined to be higher than that of PSP5 statistically (P < 0.05). Meng et al. [25] and Adhikari et al. [12] determined TPC values in the methanolic extracts of peanut shells with conventional extraction as 3.62 mg GAE/g and 0.43–0.74 mg GAE/g, respectively. These values were quite low from the data obtained in this study (Fig. 1a). On the other hand, the TPC value (27.6 mg GAE/g) found by Imran et al. [34] was similar to PSP2, however, they determined higher antioxidant capacity values (44.6 mg TE/g) with the DPPH method. Depending on autohydrolysis at different temperatures, the antioxidant activity of peanut shells with DPPH assay was determined in the range of 9.6–11.7 mg TE/g [44], which was similar to the results found in this study (Fig. 1a). Rico et al. [44] showed that non-isothermal aqueous treatment of peanut shells resulted in the occurrence of soluble oligosaccharides and lignin-derived substances, which have high antioxidant activity.

Thermo-mechanical properties

As dough characteristics, dough development time, stability, weakening of protein network (C2), starch gelatinization (C3), stability of the hot-formed gel (C4), and starch retrogradation (C5) of the flour/blends were evaluated (Table 3). The dough development time is the maximum time to reach 1.11 N.m torque and the stability revealed the resistance of the dough to prolonged shearing during mixing. The PSP blends in the present study showed lower stabilities but longer development times compared to wheat flour. The increased development times in the PSP blends probably resulted from the interference with gluten formation by peanut shells, which prolonged dough development processes. Lower stabilities in PSP blends were primarily ascribed to the water competition action of shell polysaccharides in the dough system and the dilution of gluten protein. Similar results were reported by Xiong et al. [47], who noted that bran addition in the bread dough system resulted in lower stability and longer development time. Moreover, the addition of PSP8 (coarse shell) into white flour significantly (P < 0.05) increased the development time (C1 time) of the dough (Table 3). This is due to the fact that larger particles take more time to absorb water Liu et al. [48]. C3 represents the degree of starch gelatinization. There was no significant difference in C3 values among PSPs of different particle sizes. The result was similar to the report of and Liu et al. [48] and Chen et al. [49], who found that bran particle size did not show a significant impact on pasting properties. Furthermore, PSP addition resulted in reduced C5 values which was the consequence of starch dilution. The addition of PSP disrupted the connections between amylose chains and limited the starch molecules' ability to crosslink when cooled, which possibly explains why PSP blends' retrogradation rates are lower than those of wheat flour [47]. In addition to this, the C5–C4 value indicates starch retrogradation and the values were lower for PSP blends compared to the wheat flour. This finding is consistent with the findings of Li et al. [50], who found that water molecules are less available for starch retrogradation in whole wheat flour due to the fibers' greater ability to absorb water than in white flour.

Table 3

Mixolab and texture parameters of dough
Mixolab parameters of WF-PSP blends
	WF	WF/PSP8	WF/PSP5	WF/PSP2
Development time (min)	5.60^b ± 0.35	8.63^a ± 0.01	8.44^a ± 0.62	6.68^b ± 0.35
Dough stability (min)	10.01^a ± 0.11	9.77^ab ± 0.83	9.68^ab ± 0.22	9.27^b ± 0.12
C2 (N.m)	0.64^a ± 0.01	0.62^ab ± 0.02	0.57^b ± 0.01	0.59^b ± 0.01
C3 (N.m)	1.97^ab ± 0.08	1.99^ab ± 0.02	1.93^b ± 0.04	2.09^a ± 0.02
C4 (N.m)	1.61^a ± 0.08	1.36^b ± 0.09	1.33^b ± 0.01	1.43^b ± 0.05
C5 (N.m)	2.26^a ± 0.27	1.83^b ± 0.06	1.75^b ± 0.02	1.85^b ± 0.09
Textural parameters of cookie dough
	Control	DS8	DS5	DS2
Hardness (N)	0.623^a ± 0.048	0.489^c ± 0.041	0.525^c ± 0.018	0.569^b ± 0.046
Stickiness (N)	0.128^b ± 0.017	0.152^a ± 0.013	0.152^a ± 0.008	0.100^c ± 0.024
Dough Strength/Cohesiveness (mm)	0.598^b ± 0.019	0.662^a ± 0.016	0.670^a ± 0.018	0.563^c ± 0.043
Different superscript lowercase letters in each raw show significant differences (P < 0.05). WF/PSP8, WF/PSP5, and WF/PSP2 represent the WF-blends containing 15% of PSP which remained on a sieve with an aperture size of 800, 500, and 212 µm, respectively. DS8, DS5, and DS2 represent the dough samples containing PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2

Texture analysis of cookie dough

The hardness was reduced as PSP was added to the cookie dough (P < 0.05). Moreover, the smallest particle size yielded the hardest dough (Table 3) as observed earlier in short-type biscuit dough [51] and cracker dough [52]. According to these researchers, smaller bran particles were better mixed in the dough matrix which improved the overall strength. PSP incorporation into the dough increased stickiness and cohesiveness (P < 0.05), indicating a sticky dough. Furthermore, the stickiness and cohesiveness of the dough also increased with the increased size of the PSP. However, there were no significant differences between PSP5 and PSP8. The result was similar to the report of Jin et al. [29], who found that dough stickiness increased with increasing wheat bran particle size.

Properties of cookies

Images and characteristics of cookie samples are given in Fig. 2 and Table 4, respectively. The moisture values of the cookie samples varied in the range of 0.63–0.95%. Generally, a decrease in the particle size of the PSP resulted in an increase in the moisture content of the cookies. The differences between the moisture content of CS8, CS5, and control sample were not statistically significant. However, CS2 had substantially higher moisture values (P < 0.05) than the other samples. The higher WAC values of PSP2 (Table 1) could be the reason for this situation. Okpala et al. [53] suggested that flours with high WAC could reduce moisture loss and thus has the potential to retard staling. Lipid content was determined as similar for all cookies. While the particle size of PSP did not affect the protein and ash content of the cookies, the control sample had substantially (P < 0.05) higher protein but lower ash content. PSP-containing cookies had approximately 86-100-fold higher crude fiber content than that of the control sample, and the highest value was observed for CS8 (P < 0.05).

Table 4

Characteristics of cookie samples
	Control	CS8	CS5	CS2
Moisture (%)	0.748^b ± 0.082	0.630^b ± 0.124	0.722^b ± 0.155	0.951^a ± 0.132
Protein (% dw)	5.603^a ± 0.130	4.936^b ± 0.058	4.905^b ± 0.057	4.859^b ± 0.063
Lipid (% dw)	17.887 ± 0.778	17.500 ± 0.428	17.305 ± 0.662	17.766 ± 0.333
Ash (% dw)	0.606^c ± 0.040	0.665^a ± 0.018	0.637^ab ± 0.040	0.677^a ± 0.022
Crude fiber (% dw)	0.035^c ± 0.012	3.571^a ± 0.215	3.044^b ± 0.093	3.051^b ± 0.208
Thickness (T) (mm)	6.400^a ± 0.294	5.420^c ± 0.312	5.480^c ± 0.333	5.910^b ± 0.378
Diameter (D) (mm)	40.220^c ± 0.620	45.270^a ± 0.879	44.990^a ± 0.612	43.720^b ± 0.598
Spread ratio (D/T)	6.293^c ± 0.310	8.384^a ± 0.552	8.242^a ± 0.579	7.431^b ± 0.508
Hardness (N)	37.606^a ± 5.478	19.690^c ± 3.421	20.406^c ± 2.894	27.445^b ± 2.726
Fracturability (mm)	38.625^a ± 0.343	36.797^d ± 0.505	37.262^c ± 0.368	38.295^b ± 0.492
Different superscript lowercase letters in the same raw represent significant differences (P < 0.05). Cookie samples coded as CS8, CS5, and CS2 contain PSP8, PSP5, and PSP2 which remained on a sieve with an aperture size of 800, 500, and 212 µm, respectively

As seen in Fig. 1b, CS2 was observed to have the highest TPC and AA values (P < 0.05). Although the TPC of CS2 was significantly higher than that of CS8 (P < 0.05), their AA values were determined to be similar statistically. The amount of other antioxidative substances, such as luteolin, 5,7-dihydroxychromone, eriodictyol, and 3′,4′,7-trihydroxyflavanone [13] could be higher in PSP8 and thus in CS8. It was also determined by De Camargo et al. [19] that peanut skin-fortified cookies exhibited higher TPC and AA values than the control sample.

Results showed that PSP incorporation significantly affected the cookies' thickness, diameter, and spread ratio (P < 0.05). Compared to the control sample PSP incorporation decreased the thickness and increased the diameter of the cookies, and consequently increased the spread ratio. The larger the particle size of PSP, it caused the higher the spread ratio. Similarly, Ai et al. [54] observed lower thickness and higher diameter for the cookies produced with dry bean powders, and they attributed the higher spread ratio values to the coarse bean powder particles which could not be hydrated thoroughly and resulted in less cohesive doughs compared to those of fine particles.

The texture analysis results of cookies are shown in Table 4. The findings demonstrated that the hardness and fracturability of cookies made with PSP blends were lower than that of cookies made with refined flour. Moreover, the hardness and fracturability of cookies were impacted by the PSP particle size (P < 0.05). Similar outcomes were seen by cookies enriched with PSP5 and PSP8; however, cookies made with the smallest particle size (PSP2) had increased hardness and fracturability. Jia et al. [55] studied the effect of defatted rice bran addition on biscuit texture and found that the biscuits become softer as a result of a decrease in the gluten network structure. The addition of fiber to the flour diluted the gluten protein and prevented the formation of the gluten network structure. Similar findings were obtained by Molina et al. [56], who found that biscuits made with coarse bran had the lowest textural parameters. Additionally, as seen in Table 4, the incorporation of PSP increased the spread ratio of the cookies, which resulted in decreased hardness and fracturability. The result was similar to the report of Nandeesh et al. [57], who studied the effect of differently treated wheat bran additives on the physical characteristics of biscuits.

Recently, the valorization of food wastes as nutrient sources due to their functional and bioactive properties has been an attractive issue. In this study, peanut shell powder, a valuable food waste, was used in the production of functional cookies to enhance their fiber and phenolic content. Moreover, the effect of the particle size of peanut shell powder, which was incorporated into wheat flour, on the characteristics of flour, dough, and cookies was investigated. The influence of particle size on the physical, chemical, and textural properties of the samples was significant and better results were obtained when using the peanut shell powder particles remaining between the 212–500 µm aperture-sized sieves. Therefore, this study showed that peanut shell powder could be valorized as a potential ingredient in obtaining value-added food products, especially in terms of fiber content and antioxidant activity. Further studies should be focused on the impact of different processing techniques on this valuable raw material to improve its functional properties.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have no conflict of interest to declare.

Funding

No specific funding was received for conducting this study.

Ethics Statement

This article does not contain any studies with human or animal subjects.

Data availability

Data will be made available upon request.

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Incorporation of different particle-size peanut shell powder in wheat flour: effect on the dough and cookie characteristics

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction

Material and Methods

Material

Methods

Preparation of peanut shell

Analyses of wheat flour (WF) and peanut shell powder (PSP)

Thermo-mechanical properties

Water and oil absorption capacities

Chemical analyses

Preparation of cookies

Analyses of cookies

Texture analysis of cookie dough

Chemical analyses

Spread ratio

Texture analysis

Statistical analysis

Results and Discussion

Properties of PSP and WF

Thermo-mechanical properties

Texture analysis of cookie dough

Properties of cookies

Conclusion

Declarations

References

Additional Declarations

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