Diversified Subsistence Strategies in Early Sedentary Populations of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from the Faunal Remains at Lò Gạch, southern Vietnam

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311076/v1

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Diversified Subsistence Strategies in Early Sedentary Populations of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from the Faunal Remains at Lò Gạch, southern Vietnam

https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5311076/v1

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In the past two decades, zooarchaeology combined with improved dating techniques has provided significant insights into the initial appearance of domestic animals in Southeast Asia. The suite of domestic animals commonly associated with Neolithic introduction—pigs (Sus scrofa), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), chicken (Gallus gallus), and cattle (Bos sp.)—arrived early in some areas but not others. In Southern Vietnam, analysis of animal bone assemblages and radiocarbon dating of Neolithic sites (c. 4200–3500 cal. BP) indicate that early managed animal populations were linked to sedentary lifestyles. Research has shown that pigs and dogs are present in the Neolithic, but cattle and chicken are absent. But the timing of integration of these domesticates into economic strategies remains unclear due to the lack of zooarchaeological studies on early metallurgical sites. Lò Gạch, the focus of this project, an early copper-base metallurgy settlement on the Vàm Cỏ Tây River, shows that animal management was supplemented by hunting around 3000–2200 cal. BP, with limited evidence of cattle and no domestic chicken. This highlights the complexity and regional variability in the spread and integration of domestic animals in the region.

Zooarchaeology

Neolithic-Early Bronze Age

Southern Vietnam

Economic systems

Domestication

Deer Hunting

Zooarchaeological research has provided preliminary insights into the arrival of domesticated animal populations in Mainland Southeast Asia around 4000 − 3500 years ago, and their integration into subsistence strategies. Currently, the best records come from Thailand and Vietnam (Fig. 1). On the Khorat Plateau (northeastern Thailand) at the site of Ban Non Wat (102^o 16’ 33.6” E 14^o 16’3.36” N) (1600 − 1450 BC) where the first rice agriculturalists introduced pigs, cattle and dogs, chicken is also well-represented and often included in human burials. Genetic studies indicate that chicken was domesticated from wild red jungle fowl locally in northern Thailand during this period (Peters et al. 2022). Cattle were probably introduced from the area of southern China (Zhang et al. 2016). Water buffalos (Bubalus bubalis) are absent from the Neolithic faunal spectrum but are present in the Bronze Age sequence at Ban Chiang (103^o 14’ 13.92” E 17^o 24’ 21.6” N) (after 3000 BP). Water buffalo increase in abundance during the expansion of wet rice agriculture, possibly because they were utilized for traction and ploughing in the Iron Age (Higham and Kijngam 2023).

At Khok Phanom Di (101^o 08’ 18.24” E 13^o 34’ 58.08” N) (c. 4000 − 3500 cal. BP) on the Bang Kapong River estuary in southern Thailand early settlers subsisted almost entirely on marine and estuarine resources (fish and invertebrates), wild prey, including macaques, deer, civet cats, otters and crocodiles. Dogs were very rare. Pigs were also represented but it is unclear whether these were wild or domesticated. Birds include Sarus crane, stork, pelican and godwit, but no chicken (Higham and Kijngam 2023).

In Vietnam, Mán Bạc (109^o 59’ 17” E 20^o 08’ 00” N) (c. 4000 − 3600 cal. BP) (Ninh Bình Province), contains records of both dogs and pigs. The inhabitants also hunted a variety of game including primates, deer and captured fish (Jones et al. 2019; Sawada et al. 2011). No cattle or chicken are reported. At An Sơn (106^o 17’ 41” E 10^o 59’ 19” N) and Lộc Giang (106^o 17’ 25” E 10^o 59’ 43” N) (c. 4400 − 3500 BP), two closely associated settlements on the Vàm Cỏ Đông River in the Mekong Delta region domestic dogs and pigs were the most common mammals in the archaeological record. Cut marks on dog bones suggest they were likely maintained as a food resource as well as for other functions (hunting and guarding). Fishing, mollusk collecting and hunting also played a key role in subsistence (Piper et al. 2014; Piper et al. 2017). Rạch Núi (106^o 40’ 37” E 10^o 32’ 45” N) (3850 − 3390 cal. BP) is located in the lowland mangrove forests at the confluence of the Vàm Cỏ Tây and Vàm Cỏ Đông Rivers, Long An Province. Inhabitants relied heavily on fishing, mollusk collecting and hunting/capture of turtles, crocodiles and primates. They also likely maintained populations of pigs and dogs, both of which were consumed. They seem to have had access to rice and millet, yet neither of these were grown locally (Castillo et al. 2018; Oxenham et al. 2015). None of the southern Vietnamese settlements produced any evidence of domestic cattle or chicken.

The current evidence from the archaeological record suggests that not all domesticates were introduced across the whole of Southeast Asia during the Neolithic (c. 4500–3300 cal. BP). Pigs and dogs appear to be relatively ubiquitous whereas cattle and chicken are geographically restricted to northern Thailand. All four of these domesticates are common across the Southeast Asian region today. This raises the question of ‘when did the full suite of domestic animals spread across Southeast Asia, and how were they integrated into existing subsistence strategies?’

Here, we report on the zooarchaeological analyses of a terrestrial vertebrate assemblage from Lò Gạch, a settlement site located in Long An Province on the Vàm Cỏ Tây River that straddles the end of the pre-metallurgical/metallurgical period (3300–2400 cal. BP). The study illustrates the continuing importance of hunting during this period of prehistory in southern Vietnam, but that some hunting was undertaken for purposes other than subsistence. It also further emphasizes that domestic animals were not introduced to Southeast Asia as a complete package, but rather in many areas different domesticates arrived independently and at varying times.

Lò Gạch is an early metallurgical site situated in the Vĩnh Trị commune of Vĩnh Hưng district in Long An Province. It is located approximately 120 km from the present-day coast on the western bank of the Vàm Cỏ Tây River in the Lower Mekong Delta. Lò Gạch is also located just c. 60 km from the Neolithic sites of Lộc Giang and An Sơn to the east, and c. 110 km from Rạch Núi to the southeast (Fig. 1). The site comprises a mound spanning approximately 2000–2500 m², with a height of 1–2 meters above the surrounding landscape (Fig. 2).

Prior to the 2014 excavations, Lo Gach had been investigated on four previous occasions, in 1989, 2003, 2006 and 2012 (Supplementary Information S1). The 2014 research was based on the results of the 2012 test excavations. A joint team of archaeologists from the Southern Institute for Sustainable Development in Hồ Chí Minh City, Long An Provincial Museum and Australian National University investigated three areas of Lò Gạch in order to interpret and understand the spatial layout of the settlement. Trench 1 (5 m x 4 m) was located directly adjacent to the 2012 Trial Trench. Trench 2 (3 m x 2 m) was located near the 2006 excavation, and Trench 3 (3 m x 2 m) was placed close to the northern riverbank (Fig. 2).

The excavations produced evidence of a rather complex, well-stratified sequence of archaeological deposits varying between 1 m and 1.5 m in depth. On site observations combined with micromorphological studies of the sediments and a comprehensive chronometric dating program identified the following activities in Trenches 1 and 2 (see Grono et al. 2022).

The earliest recorded activity occurred between 3300 − 3000 cal. BP and consisted of a sequence of homogenous dumped midden deposits. Included were burnt plant materials, waste from animal butchering activities, and the residues from rice processing. Trench 2 deposits continued to accumulate throughout later periods of occupation and are of equivalent age to the Trench 1 sequence.
The Trench 1 sequence was tightly constrained in age between 2750 − 2400 cal. BP. There was no evidence of early deposits, suggesting the settlement had expanded during the first half of the 1st millennium BCE. All the layers in Trench 1 are consistent with accumulation outside of human dwelling places. They consisted of a complex sequence of thin waste and activity deposits sandwiched between hard compacted silty clay plastered floor surfaces. The main midden deposits consisted of wood and grass ash, carbonized plant residues and silicified rice husks. The masses of concentrated rice husks in thin layers on the floor surfaces indicate in situ rice processing (Fig. 3). The sequential and repetitive nature of floor construction and midden deposition is representative of cyclic human activities around the settlement.

The excavations produced large quantities of pottery, evidence for copper alloy casting, and a few copper-base implements. Impressions in fragments of the silty clay surfaces indicate that woven reed mats were being laid out on floors (Cameron 2017). In addition, a reasonably large assemblage of animal bone and antler was recovered from the site.

A stringent wet-sieve sampling strategy using stacked 6 mm and 2 mm sieves resulted in the recovery of large quantities of mammal, reptile and fish bones from the 2014 excavations at Lò Gạch (See supplementary information S2). This report focuses on the mammal and reptile assemblages, results of the fish bone analyses will be reported elsewhere.

A total of 14,431 vertebrate fragments (excluding fish) were recorded from the 2014 excavations at Lò Gạch. Of these, 86% (12,467 NISP) of the bone specimens were recovered from Trench 2, 13% (1801 NISP) from Trench 1, and 1% (165 NISP) from Trench 3. Most of the animal bones from both Trenches 1 and 2 were recovered from midden deposits that all date to c. 2700–2400 cal. BP.

The bone assemblages were relatively well preserved though heavily fragmented, with 60% (9542 NISP) of all fragments less than 20 mm in length. About 9% were covered with concretion and 4% had varying coatings of manganese oxide, concentrated in the lower layers of Trench 1. The modifications had resulted from the precipitation of soluble minerals on bone surfaces due to intermittent periods of submersion and drying out. Bone fragment size and surface concretions slightly affected the identification of surface modifications. Thus, the butchery evidence reported here should be considered a minimum only.

Of the 14,431 bone specimens recovered in the 2014 excavations at Lò Gạch, 6210 (43%) could be identified to taxon and element. Of these, reptiles account for 5204 specimens (NISP) with a minimum number of individuals (MNI) of 193, mammals have an NISP of 999 NISP and 192 MNI, and birds are represented by an NISP of seven (Table 1; Fig. 4). Four bird bones could be identified as a talon (N = 1), tibiotarsus (N = 2) and tarsometatarsus (N = 1). None of these skeletal elements were from chicken.

Table 1

The number of identified specimens (NISP) and minimum number of individuals (MNI) of different vertebrate taxa recovered from Lò Gạch
Class	Order	Family	Taxon	Common name	NISP	MNI
Reptilia	Testudines	Geoemydidae		Pond, box, and water turtles	4815	98
			Batagur sp(p).	River Terrapin	17	6
			cf. Batagur	Possible River Terrapin	11	4
			Cuora sp.	Box turtle	14	9
			Cyclemys Dentata	Asian leaf turtle	3	3
			Heosemys spinosa	Spiny hill turtle	1	1
		Trionychidae		Softshell turtle	11	9
			Amyda/Pelochelys	Softshell turtle	2	1
		Testudinidae		Tortoise	1	1
	Squamata	Serpentes		Snake	188	20
		Pythonidae		Python	15	5
		Varanidae	Varanus	Monitor lizard	68	18
	Crocodylia	Crocodylidae		Crocodile	58	18
Aves				Birds	7	6
Mammalia	Primates	Cercopithecidae		Old World monkeys	11	7
			Macaca	Macaques	12	8
			Langurs	Leaf monkeys/Langurs	1	1
	Rodentia	Muridae		Rats	12	6
			Rattus	Commensal rats	2	1
	Carnivora	Canidae		Dogs/wolves	70	29
			Canis lupus familiaris	Dogs	4	3
		Mustelidae		Mustelid	3	2
			Aonyx cinerea	Otters	1	1
		Viverridae	Paradoxurus hermaphroditus	Palm civet	1	1
	Artiodactyla	Suidae	Sus scrofa	Pigs	445	66
		Cervidae		Deer	407	50
			Rucervus eldii	Eld's deer	21	12
		Bovinae (Subfamily)		Buffalo/Cattle	7	4
			Bubalus bubalis	Domestic water buffalo	2	1
Total					6210	391

Suids accounted for 45% of all mammal remains recorded at Lò Gạch (NISP = 445; MNI = 66). The earliest evidence of pig was from Trench 2 and corresponded with the earliest occupation phase of the site at c. 3300 cal. BP.

Among the recovered pig remains there were 16 maxillary and 13 mandibular fragments with dentition, and 10 isolated teeth (Supplementary Information Table S1). Based on the age estimation method described in Lemoine et al. (2014), the suid fragments from Lò Gạch (including both mandibular and maxillary teeth) indicate that 19% were slaughtered as juvenile or immature individuals (from < 1 month to 6 months old), another 26% slaughtered within the first 6 to 12 months of life, 16% slaughtered between 12 and 18 months old, another 16% slaughtered between 18 and 30 months old with 23% surviving past 30 months of age. The dental age profile is supported by a predominance of post cranial elements from young individuals with unfused or fusing articular ends (Zeder et al. 2015; Supplementary Information S2).

The dental biometrics of pig molars from Lò Gạch were compared with those from Neolithic sites where tooth dimensions have been reported in Vietnam, and with modern Eurasian wild boar from museum collections (Fig. 5; Supplementary Information Table S2). The pigs from An Sơn are considered to be of domestic stock (Piper et al. 2014) and those from Mán Bạc a mixture of domestic and wild (Jones et al. 2019). The status of the Rạch Núi pigs remains ambiguous, but Oxenham et al. (2015) considered them likely to be from a managed population. The Lò Gạch pigs generally cluster towards to the left of the sample within the smaller size of pigs. Combined with the age profiling this would indicate that the majority (at least) of the Lò Gạch pigs were domestic and that some size reduction with respect to their Neolithic progenitors is possibly evident.

In pigs, all the parts of the body are represented, indicating that primary butchery was taking place on the site (Fig. 6; Supplementary Information Fig. S1). Evidence of butchery is relatively scarce, but enough material is present to infer carcass preparation. For example, a mandible displays multiple oblique cut marks on the labial surface below the condyle. Removal of the jaw from skull probably provided access to the tongue, though it could also be related to a desire to retain the mandible for display or ritual purposes (Piper and Rabett 2009). Several humeri exhibit numerous oblique and transverse cut marks on multiple surfaces of the shaft. Transverse cut marks are evident on the dorsal margin of the olecranon fossa on ulnae. Additionally, a longitudinal split is observed on the glenoid fossa of the scapula, and a transverse cut mark is apparent on a femur. Multiple cut marks, including transverse and oblique cut marks were also recorded on a tibia. The disarticulation of the humerus from the radius and ulna, the femur from the pelvis, and removal of the hind feet are all part of the early dressing process whereby the carcass is split into high and low meat yielding portions. Thoracic vertebrae show evidence of transverse splitting and dorsal ventral chop marks on the lateral surface.

Cervids were the second most commonly occurring species among the mammal remains found at Lò Gạch, comprising 43% of all identified mammal remains. Analysis of the remains revealed the presence of at least 62 individuals, 12 of which were identified as Rucervus eldii (Asian Eld's deer). Based on size and morphology other deer represented probably includes Cervus unicolor (Sambar deer). Tooth eruption and wear in the dentition suggests that deer were slaughtered at all stages of life, from juveniles with DP4s still present (at least 9 individuals), to adults with fully erupted M3s (at least 5 individuals). Although most of the deer skeleton is well-represented in the archaeological record there is a relatively high proportion of antlers in the assemblage (Fig. 7; Supplementary Information Fig. S2). Antlers naturally detach from the skull at the burr when they are shed. Both naturally shed (N = 12) and antlers removed after an individual’s death are present at Lò Gạch. This suggests that antlers were both removed from dead animals and actively sought in the environment and returned to the settlement.

Sixty-seven cut marks were identified on the 428 deer specimens and 81% of these are present on antlers. Multiple types and numbers of cut marks on various locations of the antlers include oblique, transverse, and spiral patterns. Some antlers show evidence of peeling, scraping, grooving and snapping, and sawing. The groove and snap technique, also evident on a metapodial shaft, is a method of grooving around the circumference of an antler/bone in order to control the orientation of the break when it is snapped. This is common in green bone, especially in the recovery of raw materials for bone tool or ornament manufacture (Amano et al. 2013). Sixteen percent of the cut marks were on lower limbs. This included multiple oblique patterns on the anterior surface of distal humeri, transverse cut marks on the cranial surface and oblique ones on the medial surface of the proximal ends of radii, a longitudinally split tibia, oblique cut marks on the medial surface of metacarpals, transverse cut marks on the lateral surface of a calcaneus, and oblique cut marks on an astragalus (Fig. 7). The modifications in the antlers and metapodials are characteristic of implement manufacturing, and this is consistent with the evidence of osseous tool production recorded at Lò Gạch (Hull 2018). The locations of cut marks are typical of general carcass dressing where the feet are removed and the high meat yielding upper limbs and torso are separated from the lower limbs, and sectioned (Amano et al. 2013).

Seventy-four canid remains from 29 individuals were recovered during the 2014 excavations at Lò Gạch, with the earliest specimen recorded in the basal layers of Trench 2 dated to 3154 − 2963 cal. BP and 3074 − 2788 cal. BP. Based on dental maturity and varying stages of wear in the post-canine dentition, these were predominantly adults. However, the presence of a humerus (proximal diaphysis), radius (complete diaphysis), ulna (proximal diaphysis), and femur (proximal diaphysis) with unfused articular ends from three different contexts suggest at least three sub-adult individuals are represented.

Dental morphometrics indicate that all the individuals from Lò Gạch are all almost certainly domestic dogs (Supplementary Information, Table S3, Fig. S3). In general, the maxillary and mandibular dentition of the dogs from Lò Gạch overlap in shape and morphology with Neolithic dogs from the Vietnamese settlements of An Sơn and Mán Bạc (Piper et al. 2014; Jones et al. 2019). It is likely that all the canid remains from Lò Gạch represent a local breeding population.

Eight canid specimens possessed cut marks. This included transverse and/or oblique cut marks on the different surfaces of the distal end of two right humeri, the distal end of a left humerus, the proximal end of a right ulna, the proximal end of a left tibia, the proximal end of a left scapula, the distal end of a right radius, and multiple small cut marks on the labial surfaces of a mandibular condyle (Fig. 8). The locations of these cut marks are very similar to those observed in pigs and deer, and suggest that dogs were often butchered, processed and dressed for consumption at Lò Gạch.

Nine fragments from five bovines were identified in the archaeological record including two patellae, a right scaphoid, a fragment of M¹ or M², a right pyramidal, a piece of mandibular angle, a complete subterminal phalange, and the proximal and distal ends of a single femur. Of these few skeletal elements, only the femur could be identified as possibly being from a water buffalo (Bubalus sp.). Multiple cut marks on the dorsal and lateral surfaces of the pyramidal indicate at least one individual was butchered (Fig. 9).

Of the eleven-murid dental and skeletal elements (MNI = 6) recovered, a mandibular fragment with M₁ and two partial maxillae with M¹ and M², and M¹-M³ could be identified as Rattus sp. (Oxenham et al. 2015). A biometric comparison with the Rattus mandibular M₁s from Rạch Núi indicates that this specimen was larger than the black rat (Rattus rattus) and of similar size to the rice field rat (R. argentiventer) and Asian house rat (R. tanezumi). The indications are that commensal rats were present in and around the Lò Gạch settlement during its occupation.

Other mammals represented at Lò Gạch account for just 18 bone fragments. These include the leaf monkeys (langurs) and macaques (Macaca sp(p).), Oriental small-clawed otter (Aonyx cinerea), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus) and at least one species of unidentified murid.

Hard-shell turtles are the most abundant of all taxa recorded at Lò Gạch. Taxa represented include the river terrapins (Batagur sp(p).), box turtles (Cuora sp(p)., Asian leaf turtle (Cyclemys dentata), and possibly the spiny turtle (Heosemys spinosa). Other reptiles represented are crocodiles (Crocodylidae), monitor lizards (Varanus sp(p).), large soft-shell turtles probably in the genera Pelochelys sp. or Amyda sp., and python (Pythonidae). Cut marks on a crocodile femur and humerus indicate that at least some of these were hunted and butchered.

Pigs were the most abundant large mammal represented in the zooarchaeological record of Lò Gạch. Age-profiling indicates that the majority of pigs were slaughtered when young (Bull and Payne 1982). Although, it is commonly recognized that there are circumstances that can result in a kill-off pattern dominated by juveniles and sub-adults these are relatively rare (see Albarella et al. 2006 for discussion). The most parsimonious explanation for the very specific mortality profile at Lò Gạch is selective culling of young animals, perhaps with the retention of a few mature adults for breeding purposes. This strategy of targeting relatively young pigs has been observed globally in the archaeological record and is indicative of domesticated populations (Albarella and Payne 2005; Higham and Kijngam 2023; Lemoine et al. 2014; Zeder et al. 2015; Price and Arbuckle 2015). Tooth dimensions demonstrate that the pigs from Lò Gạch were possibly slightly smaller than those recorded from Neolithic settlements in Vietnam, suggesting a possible reduction in size through time. Butchery patterns indicate that primary and secondary butchery of pig (and deer) carcasses was taking place on site in preparation for consumption.

Deer are the second most common mammal taxon represented in the archaeological record. The only species that could be confidently identified from antler morphology was Eld’s Deer (Rucervus eldii). Other species are present, one possibly being Sambar (Rusa unicolor). The presence of almost all skeletal elements of deer suggests that complete carcasses were being introduced to the settlement, and butchered. However, special attention appears to have been paid to deer antlers. Not only were these removed from dead deer, shed antlers were also retrieved from the surrounding environment and brought to the site (Fig. 10). Remnants of burrs, beams and tines illustrate that antlers were heavily modified and reduced through sawing, grooving and snapping, and scraping and peeling. The recovery of at least 266 tool blanks, discarded off-cuts and bone implements recorded from the 2003, 2005 and 2014 excavations at Lò Gạch made from deer antlers and metapodials demonstrates that these skeletal elements were utilized in tool production (Hull 2018).

The abundance of deer, the importance of deer antler (and metapodials) in tool production, and the limited evidence for any systematic hunting of other large or medium-sized mammals suggests that cervids were being selectively targeted. The evidence from Lò Gạch would suggest that hunting was not always focused on meat supply, but rather other economic considerations could also influence human behaviour and decision-making. In this instance, the hunting of deer had a twofold purpose, dietary requirements, and raw materials for the manufacture of tools. Other wild animals such as civet cats, otters and monkeys were occasionally captured but they do not appear to have contributed a great deal to the overall diet.

The hunting of aquatic and terrestrial reptiles such as turtles, monitor lizards and crocodiles appears to have retained a similar importance from the Neolithic into the metal period (Bellwood et al. 2012; Oxenham et al. 2015). It is possible that reptile hunting remained common because it was considered an integral part of aquatic resource procurement, and linked to, or combined with fishing and mollusk collection.

The domestic dog is also well-represented in the archaeological record at Lò Gạch, and the presence of adults and sub-adults, likely hints at the maintenance of a breeding population. The few measurable teeth and skeletal elements recovered would seem suggest that dogs also remained similar in size to their Neolithic predecessors. Recorded cut marks indicate dogs were being butchered in similar ways to other large mammals at Lò Gạch and were almost certainly part of the diet.

At least two species of Rattus spp. were recorded at Rạch Núi, with the smaller similar in size to the black rat, and the larger corresponding with the Asian house rat or the rice field rat (Oxenham et al. 2015). At An Sơn the larger species was also identified. The larger species is also present at Lò Gạch, indicating that this common pest was likely inhabiting outbuildings and storage facilities.

A few bones of cattle were recorded with just one skeletal element (femur) identified as water buffalo. It is currently not possible to determine whether cattle were domestic or wild. However, it is notable that no cattle bones were recorded in any of the Neolithic settlement sites within the region. None were recorded in the Neolithic settlement site of Ban Non Wat on the Khorat Plateau in northern Thailand either, even though pigs, dogs, cattle (Bos sp(p.)) and chicken are present. They do appear in the Bronze Age after 3000 BP at the site of Ban Chiang, then increase in abundance into the Iron Age, possibly as an important draft animal (Higham and Kijngam 2023). The abundance of rice chaff recorded in the archaeological deposits at Lò Gạch indicates that extensive rice cultivation was already underway at the site, perhaps necessitating the use of draft animals in ploughing and transport. Indeed, the period around 3,000–2700 BP corresponds with the definitive emergence of copper metallurgy in Southern Vietnam with the presence on several significant archaeological sites such as Dốc Chùa and Bưng Bạc of copper casting molds and axes. Vietnamese archaeologists have correlated this technological change with the rise in agricultural production, and the potential arrival of large livestock (Đào and Nguyễn 1993; Phạm 1996i et al. 2017). Nevertheless, further research is required to confirm the presence of water buffalo in southern Vietnam during this time.

Evidence of domestic chicken on Neolithic and Bronze Age settlement sites in Vietnam remains elusive, even though the bones of fowl are common in Thailand. Although, it is possible that preservation of fragile bird bones might play a role, avian remains are not so uncommon on southern Vietnamese archaeological sites. Oxenham et al.(2015) identified duck or geese, herons and cormorants at Rạch Núi, and Piper et al.(2017) recorded a tarsometatarsus with spur from a small Phasianidae (not chicken) at Lộc Giang. And although we do recognize that the absence of evidence does not necessarily mean evidence of absence, we might expect to identify at least one or two bone fragments of chicken if they were relatively abundant in the archaeological record. For now, there is no evidence of domestic chicken in southern Vietnam in the Neolithic or early metal period. Both chicken and buffalo have been recorded at the Ba Thê - Óc Eo settlement site of Lung Lớn An Giang Province dating to the 2nd – 4th Centuries CE, providing a terminus ante quem for the integrated management of the four common early domesticates in Southern Vietnam (Bùi et al. 2022; Sawada et al. 2024).

The animal bones from Lò Gạch provide new insights into the subsistence economies of early Bronze Age communities in southern Vietnam. It demonstrates that pigs were likely the most significant terrestrial protein resource during this period. Populations of dogs were also maintained as a food source. Deer were the only large terrestrial mammal that was systematically hunted. Hunting deer had a dual purpose, to provide a source of meat and to acquire raw material for the manufacture of bone and antler implements. Reptiles remained important in the diet, possibly due to their integral integration into aquatic/fishing/river subsistence strategies. This might have been perceived as separate or different from terrestrial mammal hunting by the settlement inhabitants.

Commensal rats (Rattus sp.) appear to have been an unwanted guest likely inhabiting outbuildings and storage facilities in and around the settlement.

There is the possibility the domestic water buffalo had been introduced to southern Vietnam by the beginning of the 1st Millennium BCE, but chicken still appears to be absent. This further illustrates that the suite of domestic animals often considered to have been introduced to Southeast Asia during the Neolithic transition were not translocated to all regions at the same time, or as a package. Pigs and dogs appear to be ubiquitous on those settlements where domestic animals first arrive, whereas cattle and chicken have a much more limited geographic distribution even into the metal period.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Funding

This project was funded by the Gerda Henkel Foundation through the Lisa Maskell Fellowships (2016–2019), granted to Trần Thị Kim Quý. The 2014 archaeological excavations at Lò Gạch and radiocarbon dating were funded through a CASS Small grant, and the ARC Future Fellowship FT100100527.

Author Contribution

All authors were involved in the study's conception and design. Đ.N.K., P.J.P. and T.T.K.Q. led the fieldwork, overseeing the excavation, recording, and sample collection. Faunal analysis was carried out by T.T.K.Q. and P.J.P. T.T.K.Q. wrote the initial draft of the manuscript with support from C.H. and P.J.P. T.T.K.Q. prepared figures 4 and 6-10; P.J.P. prepared figure 5.All authors reviewed and provided input on previous drafts and approved the final manuscript.

Acknowledgement

The 2014 archaeological investigations at Lò Gạch were initiated and led by Nguyễn Khánh Trung Kiên and Philip J. Piper, as part of a collaborative effort between the Centre for Archaeology, Southern Institute of Social Sciences (Hồ Chí Minh City), Long An Provincial Museum (Tân An), and the School of Archaeology and Anthropology, Australian National University (Canberra). We extend our heartfelt thanks to the dedicated investigative team, including Lê Hoàng Phong, Nguyễn Hoàng Bách Linh, Nguyễn Nhựt Phương, Nguyễn Ngọc Hồng, Văn Ngọc Bích, Đỗ Thị Lan, Marcus Verhoeven, Jasminda Ceron, Michelle Eusebio, Cristina Cobo-Castillo, and Fredeliza Campos, whose efforts and expertise were instrumental in the success of this project. We also acknowledge the support of Dr. Bùi Phát Diệm, former director of the Long An Provincial Museum, and the museum staff, who provided invaluable assistance during the faunal analyses conducted at the museum. Finally, we express our gratitude to Professor Friedemann Schrenk for his supervision, and for reviewing and editing the manuscript. Without the contributions and support of these individuals and institutions, this research would not have been possible.

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Diversified Subsistence Strategies in Early Sedentary Populations of Mainland Southeast Asia: Insights from the Faunal Remains at Lò Gạch, southern Vietnam

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1. Introduction

2. Archaeological background

3. The terrestrial vertebrate remains from Lò Gạch

4. Discussion

5. Conclusion

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