Characteristics of First-generation College Students in Saudi Universities

doi:10.21203/rs.3.rs-5313684/v1

This study explores the characteristics and experiences of first-generation college students in Saudi Arabia, addressing a gap in the literature on this demographic within the context of Saudi higher education. Historically, the Alhejaz region (Mecca Province) enjoyed privileged access to educational institutions, while other regions faced significant barriers. Since the founding of Saudi Arabia in 1932 and the subsequent educational reforms, access to higher education has expanded significantly, with 37 public and 29 private institutions now operating across the nation's 13 provinces. This expansion has allowed students from previously underserved regions to pursue higher education, leading to a rising population of first-generation college students. By examining the demographic characteristics, geographical backgrounds, and aspirations of first-generation students, this quantitative study aims to provide an understanding of First-generation College Students in Saudi Arabia.

Educational Philosophy and Theory

First-generation college students

Saudi Arabia higher education

educational disparities

access to education

historical educational opportunities

quantitative descriptive analysis.

Founded in 1932, the rapidly developing nation of Saudi Arabia has a history of location-based disparities in educational opportunities amongst its various provinces. In what was to become modern-day Saudi Arabia, most of the Arabian Peninsula was governed by a traditional tribal rule that empowered tribal emirates and confederations, except Alhejaz. Known today as the Mecca Province, the western region of Alhejaz was a vast region that included the major cities of Mecca and Al Medina. It was ruled by the Hashemite Sharifs, who maintained the developed province from the 10th century to the 20th century (Beeston et al., 2012).

Residents of the privileged Alhejaz region enjoyed access to private institutions. Residents of other jurisdictions had to travel to Alhejaz to receive an education. During this era, a journey such as this would be costly. When King Abdul-Aziz officially established the country of Saudi Arabia in 1932, Mecca and the capital city of Riyadh were centers of formal education (Darah, 2018). During the reign of King Abdul-Aziz, Saudi Arabia showed consistent reforms in education, with the first law school being constructed in 1949 followed by the first university in 1956 (Darah, 2018). Since the first university's inception, the number of higher education institutions has risen exponentially. What started in 1949 as one college in Mecca has expanded to 37 public and 29 private institutions across the nation's 13 provinces (Ministry of Education, 2018).

This growth has helped equalize Saudi Arabia's location-based educational disparities. This historical and geographical aspect of Saudi higher education shows what population of the country was historically excluded from access to higher education. Parents who lived outside Alhejaz and Riyadh region and could not afford to travel to pursue higher education are more likely to be parents of first-generation college students. The preponderance of Saudi's higher education students in the coming decades will be first-generation cohorts due to a previous historical and geographical excluding of higher education. It is essential to highlight the first-generation college students population and be prepared to accommodate their needs. Opening the door of higher education for massive inclusive admission has created different starting points for different students.

Purpose of the study

In response to the existing gap in the Saudi literature about first-generation college students, the purpose of this study is to determine who are first-generation college students and what are their characteristics that makes their college experience different from other students. A description of the characteristics of first-generation college students in Saudi Arabia, such as age, gender, and region, contributes to the literature of first-generation college in Saudi higher education. This study provides a broad overview of the characteristics of first-generation college students in Saudi universities. While there is a significant amount of literature examining the experiences and characteristics of first-generation college students in the United States, there is no documentation of this demographic in Saudi Arabia. A clearer picture of this population may create opportunities for further investigation. This study highlights the importance of this investigation and researching the factors associated with college experience and educational outcomes.

Research Questions

In order to capture an overview of its target population, this study uses quantitative descriptive analysis guided by the following research Who are the first-generation college students of Saudi Arabia? What is their demographic background? What are their enrollment and attainment trends? What are their geographical characteristics? What are their aspirations after completing school?

The literature of first-generation college students in many countries has found that the experience of first-generation college students is different from other students (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Choy, 2001; Chen, 2005; Engle, 2007; Zhou et al., 2009; Martin, 2001; Roslan, 2001).Higher education is one way to help first-generation college students break the inherited cycle of their parents' social and economic status. However, the path to breaking this cycle through higher education is challenging for first-generation college students. It might be logical to assume that first-generation college students in Saudi higher education might face similar challenges as other students in other nations, but there is no documentation in the literature about these challenges to even begin investigating first-generation college students in Saudi higher education.

First-Generation & Continuing-Generation College Students

This literature review focuses on U.S. literature about first-generation and continuing-generation college students. There are several reasons for this focus. First, the United States is one of the first countries to use "first-generation college students" (Billson & Terry, 1982; Brooks-Terry, 1988). Second, these literary works contain an abundance of supporting data. The United States' National Center for Education Statistics (NCES) funds and collects longitudinal data on first-generation college students and provides statistical reports. These factors make American literature on this subject an attractive research resource.

The governance of the American higher education system is decentralized, which reserves full authority over educational policy to each state and local authority. In comparison, The governance of Saudi Arabia's educational system is centrally structured. The Ministry of Education oversees all educational policies and higher education operations in colleges and universities. Also, the ministry offers free seats for all native high school graduates in each of the country's public universities. The number of available seats varies from one university to the next. The ministry's annual measure of favorable college enrollment statistics is based on an assessment of the percentage of high school graduates that successfully matriculate into higher education institutions (Ministry of Education, 2018).

The higher education system in Saudi Arabia is different from the one in the USA. However, highlighting how these differences affect first-generation college students in one country is essential for another country to avoid the problems.

A clear definition of the term first-generation college student is necessary to guide higher education institutions, policymakers, and educators in making decisions that impact this population. The literature provides several definitions for the term "first-generation college students" with varying degrees of precision.

Some of the definitions in the literature are problematic. Billson and Terry (1982), Brooks-Terry (1988), McGregor et al. (1991), Pratt and Skaggs (1989), Riehl (1994), and Williams (1998) all describe first-generation students as students whose parents have no college degree nor college experience. The ambiguity of the college experience criteria can significantly alter demographic data. For example, in the 1998 NCES study, the United States' first-generation student percentage would have increased from 43.4% (NCES, 1998) to 66.3% if it did not rely on understanding the term similar to the above definition. Heliman and Harbeck (1997), York-Anderson and Bowman (1991), Inman and Mayes (1999), and Ting (1998) have defined first-generation college students as students who are the first members of their family to attend college. This definition will only apply for a single first-generation student, per family, per generation.

The definition that is most used in recent times is the one used by the U.S. Department of Education (Chen, 2005; Choy, 2001). This definition states that a first-generation student is: "An individual, neither of whose parents completed a baccalaureate degree." Chaney (1998) and Willett (1989) use a similar definition, stating that a first-generation student is "an individual for whom neither parent has earned a college degree." In this study, I applied the U.S. Department of Education's definition of first-generation college students to this population in Saudi Arabia. This definition can be modified when studies are available in Saudi Arabian literature, providing more specific characteristics for Saudi students.

While the literature did not explicitly define the term continuing-generation college student, the implicit definitions included all students that cannot be classified as first-generation students. For this study, I define continuing-generation college students as students raised by one or more natural or adoptive parents who have obtained a baccalaureate degree.

Characteristics of First-Generation College Students in the United States

The unique characteristics of first-generation college students in the United States are discernable, and they have a statistically significant disadvantage in higher education (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998; Choy, 2001; Chen, 2005; Engle, 2007; NCES, 1998; NCES, 2005; NCES, 2017; NCES, 2018). Identifying the characteristics of first-generation students enables us to differentiate them from their peers and provide tailored support systems.

After determining their characteristics, we can then classify and group them based on these characteristics. This classification allows for further inquiry into the causes of issues explained in the literature, such as poor retention and degree attainment. For instance, are these problems associated with social capital or because of financial reasons? Once the above steps have been satisfied, the result will optimally be establishing admission policies that address the needs and concerns of this group. Policies that specifically aid and assist first-generation college students will help them achieve their educational goals.

Demographic Characteristics of First-Generation College Students

Gender, Race and Ethnicity

I present demographic characteristics of first-generation college students presented in previous studies, starting with gender. The difference in gender distribution between first-generation and continuing-generation students is statistically significant. Females are the prevalent gender, representing 57% of all first-generation college students in America (NCES, 1998; Chen, 2005; Engle, 2007). For continuing-generation college students, the gap between females and males are notably smaller, 51% female and 49% male (NCES, 1998). This gender ratio is often not reflected upon in-depth in the current literature.

Concerning race and ethnicity, while most American first-generation students are non-Hispanic Whites (as is the case with most U.S. college students overall), the percentage of American racial minorities is higher among first-generation college students. In recent decades, the racial minority percentage has shown a substantial increase specific to the first-generation population. This increase may indicate that the policies and educational practices implemented in the United States were effective enough to narrow gaps in educational attainment based on race and ethnicity. In 1998, the NCES reported that first-generation college students were 76% White, 9% Black, 11% Hispanic, 4% Asian, and 1% Native American (NCES, 1998). By contrast, in 2018, their report showed a first-generation ratio transition of 49%, White, 14% Black, 27% Hispanic, 5% Asian, and 5% other ethnicities (NCES, 2018). The shift in proportion was noteworthy but less significant amongst the continuing-generation population of the same period. The percentage for this group went from 82% White (NCES, 1998) to 70% White (NCES, 2018).

In Saudi Arabia, the variable of race is not present on official forms, nor is it used to identify individuals. The standard classifier used in most cases is citizenship, whether an individual is a citizen or a non-citizen. National identification cards list eye color and categorize skin color as dark or light, primarily in police and criminal investigations.

I anticipated finding a gender gap in the results of my study based on a few historical points in Saudi Arabian education. Additionally, gender role expectations have a substantial prevalence in Saudi Arabia, and women may be unwilling to travel to another region to pursue the major they are interested in studying. Until 2002, female formal schooling was supervised and controlled by the Department of Religious Guidance to make sure female education was aligned with their purpose in society, which was preparing females to be good wives and mothers (Rajkhan, 2014). Formal schools for males were established in major cities in 1945 and eventually spread to other areas. Schools for females were only established in 1956 in the major cities and eventually spread to other regions and cities (Ministry of Education, 2018). I expect my results to show that a gender gap in enrollment is present in Saudi Arabia.

In 2017, male students accounted for 56.1% of higher education enrollment. Female students were, however, more likely to graduate. In 2017, Saudi Arabia's graduates were 53.1% female. There are also considerable differences in the fields of study chosen by students based on gender. Female students are more likely to enroll in education, mathematics, statistics, physics, and medicine. Male students are more likely to enroll in law, engineering, business, and information science majors (Ministry of Education, 2018).

Age, Dependency Status, and Enrollment Trends

Age and dependency status are primary characteristics of the U.S. first-generation college student population. High school first-generation students are also characterized as being less likely to have ever even enrolled in college. First-generation college students are by and largely older than their peers (Choy, 2001). Most first-generation college students enroll in higher education institutions when they are 24–34 years of age (NCES, 1998). Only 53% of first-generation students enroll within three months of graduating high school (NCES, 1998). As cited in NCES’s report (2018)

college attainment is unequally distributed among students. Lauff and Ingels (2013) found that among 2002 high school sophomores, 46 percent of students who had a parent with a bachelor’s degree and 59 percent who had a parent with a master’s degree or higher had obtained a bachelor’s degree or higher by 2012, compared to 17 percent of students who had parents with no postsecondary education experience

A disparity also exists between first-generation and continuing-generation students' independence and marital status. The first-generation population is typically characterized by greater day-to-day family codependence. They are statistically more likely than continuing-generation students to either be married with dependents or depend on living with family (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). First-generation students are also more likely to have obligations outside of higher education (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998). They are also more likely to have off-campus living arrangements, only 16% of first-generation college students live on campus. Age and dependency status can influence enrollment and degree attainment. First-generation college students sometimes select institutions based on location alone to be close to home, regardless of how well an institution suits their needs as a student (Nunez & Cuccaro-Alamin, 1998).

Economic Factors

First-generation students have distinct economic characteristics that affect student enrollment, degree attainment, and institution type. U.S. first-generation college students are more likely to come from low-income families (Engle, 2007; Choy, 2001; Chen, 2005; NCES, 1998; 2005; 2018). Twenty-seven percent of first-generation students come from families that make $20,000 or less compared to only 6% of continuing-generation students. Fifty percent of first-generation college students are in the next tier and come from households that earn $20,001 to $50,000 a year compared to only 23% of continuing-generation college students (NCES, 2018). The financial struggles resulting from their socioeconomic status compel first-generation students to drop out of school early because they either cannot afford their education or must work to help support their families (Choy, 2001). First-generation college students are often forced to work part-time jobs and enroll in institutions part-time or, at minimum, take fewer courses (Choy, 2001). Fifty-four percent of first-generation students that abandon college without attaining a degree cite financial burden as the reason (NCES, 2018).

college selectivity is a measure for American higher education institutions. Selectivity measures the ratio of students' application and students admitted. Selectivity sometimes differentiates between access and excellence. Highly selective colleges turned down many applicants and admitted few highly qualified students. First-generation students tend to enroll in two-year institutions where institutional selectivity is not classified (Carnegie, 2018). These institutions are more affordable and have a lower GPA threshold, accommodating those who would not be admitted to more selective schools (Choy, 2001). Though two-year institutions are cheaper and faster to complete, they may lack sufficient resources to prepare students adequately(Choy, 2001). Fifty-two percent of first-generation college students enroll in a two-year institution. Location, completion time, and cost are all determinative enrollment factors (NCES, 1998). Only 6% of first-generation students enroll in highly selective 4-year institutions, while 16% enroll in moderately selective 4-year institutions (Cataldi et al., 2018). Considering these factors, first-generation college students are more likely to earn a certificate (22%) or an associate degree (39%) than they are to earn a bachelor's (23%) (Cataldi et al., 2018).

Regions of Saudi Arabia

In Saudi Arabia, the higher education system is an extension of the public educational system. Higher education institutions are available to students free of charge. Therefore, financial challenges might be as challenging as those in colleges where they must pay tuition. However, universities and colleges were built in big cities, meaning that students from villages and small towns have to relocate and pay living expenses in big cities. Therefore, a financial gap might be an obstacle for students who cannot afford to travel to big cities. That being said, geographical location matters because it could be an essential factor for pursuing higher education. High school graduates are expected to apply to colleges within their region except for students who would like to pursue majors that are not offered at their local institutions, which is often the case (Ministry of Education, 2020). A committee will then determine whether or not their admission application is accepted (Ministry of Education, 2020). Universities have limited capacities, and region natives prioritize outside applicants (Ministry of Education, 2020). Universities with low student enrollment are more willing to accept students from outside their region. Saudi Arabia has not adopted a ranking system for universities. However, some universities hold more prestigious positions in public opinion.

A thorough review of literature on first-generation college students has shown that they possess unique characteristics that distinguish them from their continuing-generation peers. In reviewing the current literature, it became evident that a gap exists regarding research on first-generation college students in Saudi Arabia. The characteristics of Saudi first-generation college students are still unknown. This gap encourages new research to fill the void and support student outcomes.

This study describes the characteristics of first-generation college students in Saudi Arabia. A quantitative descriptive study is appropriate for identifying these students. I provide a descriptive analysis using frequencies and statistics description (means, median, and standard deviation). Independent t-test and Chi² test of independence are used to determine the differences between first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students. The three main categories selected are institutional characteristics, demographic characteristics, and academic performance characteristics. A logistic regression estimation is suitable for predicting binary outcomes. Therefore, this study uses a logistic model to test the relationship between whether a student is a first-generation college student and region, age, gender, marital status, income, family structure, major, high school track, and cultural capital.

Data Collection

The data for this study is collected from 32 universities in Saudi Arabia. The survey that is hosted in Qualtrics. An anonymous link was sent to student’s groups' admins, who distributed the survey link to students in their groups. The data collection period lasts for four weeks. Due to this nature of survey distribution, there is no response rate calculated.

Methods

I used Qualtrics to collect data from 32 universities in Saudi Arabia. I deleted observations with missing data that led to a final sample of (n=317). I used STATA to clean and manage the data. To answer the research questions, I conducted a descriptive analysis for both numeric and categorical variables. This research paper provided an overview of the characteristics of first-generation college in Saudi universities in comparison to containing-generation college students. I answered the following research questions Who are the first-generation college students of Saudi Arabia? What is their demographic background? What are their enrollment and attainment trends? What are their geographical characteristics? After completing school, what are their aspirations? By comparing first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students using the following variables: region, parents' level of education, gender, age, income, family structure, major, degree level, and future aspiration. I analyzed categorical data using frequencies, percentages, and chi-square test of independence. For the following variables: region, parents' level of education, gender, family structure, major, degree level, and future aspiration, I utilized the chi-square test of independence to compare first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students. I analyzed numeric variables using mean, median, max, min, and standard deviation for age and income variables utilized independent t-test to compare first-generation college students. To further ensure I did a complete analysis of all variables, I added additional testing beyond the bivariate analysis. I used a logistic model to test the relationship between gender, age, income, major, high school track, and cultural capital and whether a student is a first-generation college student. logistic regression is suitable for this data because it is adequate to predict a binary outcome

Findings

First-generation college students are defined as the first in their family to attend college, and neither of their parents attended college. The survey question on parental education level includes eight items: illiterate^[1], less than high school, high school, college but did not complete, two-year degree, bachelor's degree, professional degree, graduate degree, and others. For "both parents as first-generation college students," I labeled the participants with the following responses: illiterate, less than high school, high school, college but did not complete. Continuing-generation college students are defined as students who have at least one parent that attended college. For "at least one parent as a continuing-generation college student," I labeled participants with the following responses: two-year degree, bachelor's degree, professional degree, and graduate degree. The sample for this paper was collected from 13 regions throughout Saudi Arabia. I excluded responses from participants who did not meet the criteria of being enrolled in a degree-granting school at the study time. In this analysis, only n=317 responses were included.

The results of this study focus on exploring the characteristics of first-generation college students characteristics compared to the characteristics of continuing-generation college students. In this sample, first-generation college students represent 55%, while continuing-generation college students represent 45%.

The data broadly represents the college student population. However, it is not representative of each region of Saudi Arabia. The total number of students enrolled in Saudi universities is 1,620,491. As mentioned previously, these students were distributed throughout 13 regions. The highest enrollment records were for the regions of Mecca and Riyadh, by 24.9% and 23.2% of the total enrollment, respectively. These variances were reflected in the sample of this study. The highest number of participants were also recorded for the regions of Mecca and Riyadh, by 29% and 28%, respectively. Historically, only the regions of Mecca and Riyadh were granted access to higher education. Residents of other regions were geographically excluded from accessing higher education except for those who could afford to travel and study in Mecca and Riyadh. For this paper, I could not obtain a representative sample of each region. Therefore, I cannot describe first-generation college students in terms of geographic location.

This limitation may encourage plans to sample more students from underrepresented regions in Saudi Arabia. However, 28% of responses came from Riyadh, followed by 29% of responses from Mecca. Regions in my analysis are grouped into five categories: West Region (Mecca, Madina), Mid Region (Riyadh, Qassim), East Region (Eastern Province), North Region (Hail, Tabuk, Northern Borders, Jawf), South Region (Jazan, Baha, Asir, Najarn) A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the difference between first-generation and continuing-generation college students based on region. There is no enough evidence that there is a difference between first-generation and continuing-generation college students (1,N=317)=5.83.,p=0.21. The relationship between first-generation college student status and geographic location is not statistically significant

Table 1 Comparison Between First-Generation College Students and Continuing-Generation College Students
First-generation college students			Continuing generation college students
Region	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
West	65	37%	5.83	42	29%
Mid	45	26.3%		54	37%
East	12	7%		7	5%
North	16	9%		15	10%
South	35	20%		26	18%

Parents’ level of education

Continuing-generation college students in this study are at least one of their parents hold a college degree. Even though the threshold for this study is the college degree, I investigate the level of education to understand how the level of education varies among first-generation and continuing-generation college students. First-generation college students are more likely to have illiterate parents. That means they cannot even help them with basic education such as reading and writing. First-generation college students were not helped by their parents to be prepared for college because they did not even have experience with k-12 education. The mother's level of education for first-generation college students represented 37% illiterate, 50% less than high school and 11% high school diploma holders, and 2% college dropout. A chi-square test of independence was performed to examine the differences of "mother level of education" among first-generation and continuing-generation college students.

The difference is statistically significant (1,N=317)=176.8,p < 0.001. The mothers of continuing-generation college students are more likely to be more educated than the mothers of first-generation college students . Even though the threshold of first-generation college students definition in this study is obtaining a college degree, first-generation college students' parents' level of education is different when we consider educational levels less than college.

Understanding the underlying differences in educational levels is essential beyond the definition of first-generation college students is important. If first-generation college students come from families where parents are literate, that means first-generation college students did not have support from the early educational stages. On the other hand, if first-generation college students come from families with parents who had at least high school, they are more likely to receive the minimum educational support, such as doing homework with their children and reading teacher notes.

Table 2 Mother Education Among First-Generation and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Illiterate	64	37%	176.8***	8	5.5%
Less than high school	87	50%		24	16.6%
High school	18	11%		11	7.6%
College dropout	4	2.%		4	2.7%
Two-year degree	0	0		15	10%
Bachelor	0	0		70	48.6%
Professional degree	0	0		1	0.69%
Graduate degree	0	0		11	7.6%
statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; *** statistically significant at p < 0.001

The father's level of education for first-generation college students represented 19% illiterate, 51% less than high school, 24% high school diploma holders, and 5% went to college but did not complete it. The father's level of education for continuing-generation college students is as follows: 1% illiterate, 12.5% less than high school, 8% high school, and 2% college dropout. Sixteen percent of continuing-generation college students' fathers hold a two-year degree, while 45% of them hold a bachelor's degree. About fourteen percent of continuing-generation college students hold a professional degree. A chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine the differences of "father level of education" among first-generation and continuing-generation college students. The difference is statistically significant(1,N=317)=202.2p < 0.001. The fathers of continuing-generation college students are more likely to hold a higher degree than first-generation college students.

Table 3 Father Education Among First-Generation and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Illiterate	33	19%	202.2***	2	1.3%
Less than high school	89	51%		18	12.5%
High school	42	24.2%		12	8.3%
College dropout	9	5.2%		3	2%
Two-year degree	0	0		23	15.9%
Bachelor	0	0		65	45%
Professional degree	0	0		21	14.5%
Graduate degree	0	0		0	0%
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

Reviewing parents' education levels less than college is essential to track first-generation college students' lack of educational support through all grades. Continuing-generation college students' parents are more likely to have more educated partners. Moreover, first-generation college students' mothers are more likely to be illiterate. In general, mothers of both first-generation and continuing-generation college students have less-educated mothers.

Characteristics of First-Generation College Students in Saudi:

Age, Gender, And Martial Status

The decision to attend college is often difficult for first-generation college students. It can take them several years before deciding to enroll in an institute of higher education. NCES reports that first-generation college students are less likely to enroll in college in the eight years following high school graduation. This means that they attend college older than their peers. First-generation college students in Saudi universities are, on average older than their peers. Female, first-generation college students are older than their peers on average by 1.6 years. Male first-generation college students are older than their peers on average by 4.5 years. A t-test was performed to examine the differences in age between first-generation and continuing-generation college students.

The age difference is statistically significant t(315)=-3.6,p <.001. First-generation college students are more likely to be older than their peers. Female first-generation college students tend to be older than female continuing-generation college students t (224) =-2.08,p <0.001. Male first-generation college students tend to be older than male continuing-generation college students t (89) =-2.87,p <0.001

Table 4 Comparison between first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students by age, gender
First-generation student continuing-generation students
Variable	Mean	Std.	t-test	Mean	Std.
Age	26.2	0.5	-3.5***	23.6	0.46
Age of female	25	6.6	-2.08**	23.4	5.4
Age of male	28.7	8.2	-2.8**	24.2	5.8
significant at p < 0.05 ; * significant at p < 0.01; ***significant at p < 0.001

Gender is an essential variable in this paper for two reasons: First, formal education for Saudi females began nine years after males. This delay may have been associated with a gender gap in college enrollment. Second, research on first-generation college students found that females are more likely to be first-generation college students. Females represented 71% of the sample, while males represented 29% of the sample. Female first-generation college students in Saudi universities represented 68% of the sample, while male first-generation college students represented 32%. The chi-square test of independence shows that gender variance among first-generation and continuing-generation college students is not statistically significant(1, N=317)= 1.77 p =0.18. Even though gender is an essential variable in the study, given the social and historical factors associated with gender in the Saudi educational system, gender is not a differentiating characteristic between first-generation and continuing-generation students in Saudi universities.

The majority of first-generation college students are single, representing 67.6%. First-generation college students who are not single represent 32%. Continuing-generation college students are 78.4% single ,and 22% are not single. The differences in marital status between first-generation and continuing-generation college students are statistically significant (1, N=317)= 4.63 p = 0.03.

Table 5 First-generation and continuing-generation students by Marital status
First-generation students				Continuing-generation students
Variable	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Marital status			4.63*
Single	117	67.6%		113	78%
Not single	56	32.4%		31	22%
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

Income and Family Structure

To measure the financial status of first-generation college students, I used two variables. The first variable is monthly income measured in S.R. (1SR=3.50 USD), and the second variable is enrollment in the Social Security benefits program. First-generation college students come from families that have a lower income than continuing-generation college students. The median monthly income for first-generation college students is 7000SR ($1,866.66), while the median income for continuing-generation college students is 20000SR ($5,714.28). The difference in income between first-generation and continuing-generation college student families is statistically significant t (315) = 2.5, p <0.05. First-generation college students tend to come from low-income families.

Table 6 Income Variance Between First-Generation College Students and Continuing-Generation College Students
	Ttest	Mean	Median	Std.
First-generation college students	2.5	9,716	7000	43931.81
Continuing-generation college students	2.5	22,704.24	20000	20849.16

The social security program is a monthly and annual financial assistance program for low-income families, men of age 60 years, unmarried women of age 30 years, divorced and widows, orphans, people with disabilities, children, and families their father left them. Recipients of this program receive a monthly salary and one-time payment every year. The amount of this financial assistance varies for every case.

First-generation college students and their families are enrolled in the Social Security Program by 27.7%, while continuing-generation college students and their families are enrolled by only 9.7%. The difference between first-generation and continuing-generation college students in the Social Security Program enrollment is statistically significant (1, N=317)= 16.22 p < 0.0001. First-generation college students are more likely to come from families that are enrolled in Social Security Programs.

Table 7 Social Program Enrollment Differences Between First-generation and Continuing-generation college students
	First-generation		Chi²	Continuing-generation
	Frequency	Percentage		Frequency	Percentage
Enrolled	48	27.7%	16.22***	14	9.7%
Not enrolled	125	72.2%		130	90%
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

Regarding familial structure, participants were asked to report their living status and whether they lived with both parents. The differences between first-generation and continuing-generation college students are statistically significant (1, N=317)= 11.65 p < 0.001. First-generation college students are less likely to come from homes where both parents live together.

Table 8 Living status for first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students
Living status	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Students live with both parents	118	68.2%	11.65*	122	85.7%
Students do not live with both parents	55	32%		22	15%
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

Majors and Degrees

I looked into major choices for first-generation college students and continuing-generation college students regarding STEM majors and non-STEM majors. First-generation college students are enrolled in non-STEM majors by 66%, and only 34% of first-generation college students are enrolled in STEM majors. Continuing-generation college students enroll in STEM majors by 41.6%, while 58.3% are enrolled in non-STEM majors. The differences between first-generation and continuing-generation college student "STEM majors" enrollment are not statistically significant (1, N=317)= 1.916 p = 0.16. There is not enough evidence that first-generation college students are more likely to enroll in non-STEM majors than continuing-generation college students.

Table 9 Majors Choices Between First-Generation College Student and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
STEM major	59	34%	1.916	60	41.6%
Non-STEM	114	66%		84	58.3%

Degree type is a strong predictor for first-generation college students within the literature (Carnegie, 2018; Choy, 2011, NCES 1998; Cataldi et al., 2018). First-generation college students are more likely to enroll in a two-year degree program. However, this paper does not have enough evidence to support that degree type is associated with parents' level of education in Saudi universities. There is no evidence that first-generation and continuing-generation are different in degree types in Saudi universities.

Table 10 Degree Choices Between First-Generation College Student and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Bachelor	102	59%	3.211	82	57%
Graduate Degree	63	36%		48	33%
2-Year Degree	8	5%		14	10%

Students were asked about their high school tracks. There are five tracks in high school: technology high school, business high school, humanity track, science track, and Quranic high school. Each school specializes in a field of study. Students enrolled in science track high school study more math, physics, chemistry, etc., and less in religion and humanity. For this analysis, I collapsed high school tracks to Science track high school and not science high school track . Chi²test of independence was conducted to test the difference between first-generation and continuing-generation college students in their high school choices. There is no statistically significant difference between first-generation and continuing-generation college students. Continuing-generation college students are more likely to enroll in science track than first-generation college students (1, N=317)= 3.9711 p =0.08.

Table 11 High School Tracks Choices Between First-Generation College Student and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Science	125	72.2%	2.971	116	80.5%
Not Science	48	27.7%		28	19.4%

Post-graduate aspiration

I investigated students' plans by asking them how motivated they were to study abroad through the King Abdullah Scholarship Programs, apply for graduate school, drop out of college if they got married, drop out and get a job, or drop out and join the military. Based on the data I collected, there is not enough evidence to show that first-generation and continuing-generation college students differ regarding plans. However, first-generation college students are highly motivated to drop out of college and get a job compared to continuing-generation college students. This difference is statistically significant (1, N=499)= 8.3 p < 0.05.

Table 12 Post-Graduation Aspiration Among First-Generation College Student and Continuing-Generation College Students
First-generation college students						Continuing-generation college students
	Highly motivated		Motivated	Highly unmotivated	Unmotivated	Highly motivated		Motivated	Highly unmotivated	Unmotivated
		Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)	Chi²	Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)	Freq.(%)
Study abroad		83(56)	46(50)	11(52)	33(19.8)	1.38	65(43.9)	46(50)	10(47)	23(41)
Apply for graduate school		126(55.5)	33(50)	5(62.5)	9(52)	0.68	101(44.4)	32(49)	3(37.5)	8(47)
Drop out if they get married		9(56)	5(71)	90(52)	69(57)	1.56	7(43.7)	2(28.5)	83(47.9)	52(42.9)
Drop out and get a job		9(90)	3(42.8)	86(52.7%)	75(54.7)	5.66	1(10)	4(57.1)	77(47)	62(45)
Drop out and join military		3(50)	7(58.3)	89(51)	74(59.2)	2.02	3(50)	5(41.6)	85(48.8)	51(40.8)

Cultural capital

Cultural capital is a mechanism by which individuals leverage and benefit from the information, mannerisms, and distinct skill sets afforded to them by societal status (Bourdieu,1973). I measured cultural capital through 15 questions about students' home and parental behaviors such as owning a home library, having internet access, and whether students' parents read to them when they were young. I summed the score and categorized the scores into three categories: low cultural capital home (0-5), medium cultural capital home (6-10), and high cultural capital home (11-15). I choose thresholds for these categories based on mathematical reasoning. Therefore, they are divided equally into three groups. There was an option to use the underlying scale score and compare cultural capital between first-generation and continuing-generation college students using an independent t-test.

However, I choose to use the categorical form of cultural capital rather than the scale score. The raw summed score will not provide a useful answer to classify college students’ cultural capital in terms of high, medium, and low cultural capital. The raw score will provide me with a scale ranging from low to high, and it would be ambiguous to determine the cultural capital level. First-generation college students are more likely to come from low-cultural capital families. Chi²test of independence was conducted to test whether the differences in cultural capital between first-generation and continuing-generation college students are statistically significant. The test results show the differences are statistically significant (1, N=317)= 52.28 p <0.0001.

Table 13 Cultural Capital differences between First-Generation College Student and Continuing-Generation College Students
	First-generation college students			Continuing-generation college students
	Frequency	Percentage	Chi²	Frequency	Percentage
Low cultural capital	55	84.6%	52.28***	10	15%
Medium cultural capital	107	54.8%		88	45%
High cultural capital	11	19.3%		46	80.7%
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

Logistic regression

The difference in the characteristics of first-generation and continuing-generation college students can be examined using bivariate analysis, where the dependent and independent variables are observed and independent from other characteristics. Chi2 test of independence and independent t-test examines the characteristic differences between first-generation and continuing-generation college students independently. Conversely, logistic regression analysis can explore the characteristics of students in association with the probability of being first-generation college students or not holding other characteristics constant. In order to predict whether a student is a first-generation college student, a logistic regression model is suitable to test this relationship based on the following independent variables; region, age, gender, marital status, income, enrollment in a social security assistance program, living in a household with both parents, major, high school track and cultural capital.

Logistic regression examines the probability that a student can be one of the two categories in the dependent variable FGCS (1=Yes, 0=No).

Table 14 Logistic regression model for first-generation college students ( Yes=1, No=0)
Variables	Odds Ratio	Std. Err.	z	P>z	95% Conf.Interval

Regions
Mid	1.060743	.3603377	0.17	0.862	.5450727	2.064268
East	1.385093	.8843952	0.51	0.610	.3962585	4.841493
North	1.17396	.5892606	0.32	0.749	.4389334	3.139841
South	.9496161	.3868962	-0.13	0.899	.4273151	2.110318

Age(years)	1.086315	.0350621	2.57	0.010	1.019723	1.157255
1.gender	1.019727	.3221612	0.06	0.951	.5489906	1.894101

Marital Status
Single	.7392181	.2862598	-0.78	0.435	.3460569	1.579056
income (SR10,000.00)	. 9073932	4.77e-06	-2.02	0.043	.999981	.9999997
Student is Enrolled in Social Security Program	3.597128	1.404339	3.28	0.001	1.673563	7.731605

Student Lives with Both Parents	.8943067	.3269887	-0.31	0.760	.4367758	1.83111
Student is Enrolled in a STEM Major	1.281547	.4093504	0.78	0.437	.6852432	2.39676

Student was Enrolled in Sciences High school track	.8004514	.2826032	-0.63	0.528	.4006952	1.599027

Cultural capital
Med	.1981251	.0807931	-3.97	0.000	.08909	.4406052
high	.0339565	.0188027	-6.11	0.000	.0114706	.1005211
* statistically significant at p < 0.05 ; statistically significant at p < 0.01 ; * statistically significant at p < 0.001

The logistic regression model was statistically significant, X2(15,N=317)=98.07, p=.001. The model explained 22% of the variance in first-generation college student status and correctly classified 73.17% of college students. For each additional year in age, the odds of being a first-generation college student increase by 8% holding all other variables constant. This effect is significant at the p<0.01 level (z = 2.599). Students who reported higher income are less likely to be a first-generation college students ((OR=. 9073932, 95%CI [.8269349, .9952992]. All else being equal, students whose families enrolled in social security assistance programs have odds of Being first-generation college students that are 3.5 higher than students whose families are not enrolled in social security assistance programs. This effect is significant at the p<.001 level (z = 3.28). Student’s region, gender, marital status, family structure, major, high school track, and cultural capital were not associated with first-generation college status .

In the first part of the analysis, the differences between first-generation and continuing-generation college students' characteristics are significant according to the Chi2 test of independence and independent t-test. Some students' characteristics are no longer significant in the regression model. The logistic regression analysis evaluates the relationship between students' characteristics and the probability of being first-generation students where the student's characteristics are explanatory variables to the predicted variable (Yes=first-generation college student, No= continuing-generation college students). The likelihood of being a first-generation college student is assessed with holding all variables constant at their mean. On the other hand, the Chi2 test of independence and independent t-test examines the mean difference of students' characteristics separately.

To conclude, the Chi2 test of independence and independent t-test investigate the difference in characteristics between first-generation and continuing-generation college students. The logistic regression examines whether the characteristics of students can predict the likelihood of a student being a first-generation or continuing-generation college student.

I used AUC to investigate the probability that a student with y=1 (first-generation student) had a higher probability of the event than student with y=0 (continuing-generation student). My model reported AUC = 0.8 which indicates a well-fitting model

That is to say, financial stability decreases social isolation for families. Second, the cultural capital disadvantage is high for first-generation college students who grew up lacking access to cultural resources. Cultural capital can affect many aspects of individuals ‘ lives, from navigating college and educational and economic opportunities to their careers. Cultural capital influence can extend to affect individuals’ careers. Cultural capital and other factors can affect an employee’s performance (Santos.et al , 2018). Third, economically and culturally disadvantaged students might not socially integrate with other students. Economic status might not permit students to hang out and socialize because they cannot afford it, or they have work obligations to support themselves and their families. These gaps in opportunities can isolate minor populations within the Saudi society who are not used to social divisions of that nature. Think holistic of people lives

The experiences of first-generation and continuing-generation college students are not the same. These differences might create a gap in educational attainment among students in Saudi universities. This gap could also affect the economy of families and the economy of the country. Initiatives to amend the gap may need to start before college with advisory programs for first-generation college students that monitor the data of high school tracks. First-generation college students may need support to study science tracks that prepare them for STEM majors in college. More research is needed to understand the depth of this gap. Also, this research will encourage the Ministry of Education to establish a data collection system to collect data on the status of students in public education and higher education. The availability of data will allow researchers to investigate the experiences of first-generation college students in more depth and understand how we can help them succeed in higher education and what policies are needed to support this population.

[1] The term "illiterate" refers to parents who cannot read or write. The term "illiterate" is widely used in data collection instruments in Saudi Arabia, including General Authority for Statistics, a government agency that collects data on citizens and residents, including literacy rates.

The sample of this study is a representative sample of first-generation college students; however, it is not a representative sample for regions in Saudi Arabia. Participants in this study were from big cities in Saudi. Small cities in Saudi were not represented in this sample. It is beneficial to investigate small cities because historically, they were excluded from higher education.

Data Sharing

The data that support the findings of this study are not publicly available due to privacy and confidentiality agreements stated in the informed consent form. Participants were assured that their data would remain confidential and would not be shared with third parties

This study involving human participants was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines and received approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) at [Seton Hall University]. The IRB reviewed and approved all procedures, ensuring that the study met ethical standards for the protection of participants' rights and confidentiality. Approval reference number: [Re:2020-122]. All participants provided informed consent prior to their involvement in the research.

Acknowledgement

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my mentors, Dr. Blissett for his invaluable guidance and detailed feedback throughout this study. I also would like to thank Dr.Skinner and Dr.Alruwaili for their valuable insights and feedback.

I, Samah Alshrief, the author of this work, declare that there are no competing financial or non-financial interests directly or indirectly related to the work submitted for publication. All research was conducted independently, without any conflicts of interest that could affect the integrity or objectivity of this study.

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Characteristics of First-generation College Students in Saudi Universities

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Abstract

Figures

Introduction