1. Animals and treatment
In compliance with the National Institutes of Health Guidelines for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals, all animal experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of Jilin University. The study utilized eight-week-old male C57BL6/J mice (Weitonglihua, Beijing, China), which were allowed to acclimate under standardized conditions in a temperature-controlled environment set at 22°C with a 12:12-hour light-dark cycle. The animals had ad libitum access to standard rodent chow and tap water.
Mouse B16 melanoma cells were obtained from the China Center for Type Culture Collection (CCTCC, China) and cultured in RPMI 1640 medium (Catalog No. 10491, Solarbio, Beijing, China), 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Catalog No. ASFBS-U, Assay Matrix), and penicillin/streptomycin. Cells were resuspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) at a concentration of 2×105 cells per ml and then subcutaneously injected in a final volume of 50µl into each mouse. Once palpable, tumors were measured with digital calipers, and tumor volume was calculated using the formula: (length×width2) / 2 = volume (mm³). The maximum tumor volume allowed by the ethics committee was 1,500 mm³, and tumors never exceeded this limit. Once tumors reached approximately ~ 30 mm³, mice were randomized into four distinct groups, each comprising seven individuals: control group, anti-PD-1 (ICI) treatment group, RSV treatment group, anti-PD-1 with RSV (ICI/RSV) treatment group. Carboxy methylcellulose (CMC) (C8621, Beijing, China) at a concentration of 0.01% was employed as the vehicle for RSV. Mice in the RSV and ICI/RSV groups were administered RSV (Sigma Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) via gavage at a dosage of 40 mg/kg on alternate days over a one-month period[32]. The control and ICI groups received an equivalent volume of 0.01% CMC. The ICI and ICI/RSV groups were injected intraperitoneally with anti-mouse PD-1 (Selleck, China) at a dosage of 10 mg/kg once weekly for a duration of one month. Concurrently, the control and RSV groups received an equivalent volume of antibody IgG2b kappa (BioXcell).
At the conclusion of the experimental phase, the mice were humanely euthanized under deep anesthesia. Blood, along with tissues from the bilateral testes, epididymides, and spleens, were meticulously collected for subsequent scientific analyses.
2. Assessment of sperm parameter
Sperm samples were extracted from the cauda epididymides and immediately immersed in isotonic saline maintained at a temperature of 37°C. The concentration of spermatozoa within the epididymal fluid was quantified using a hemocytometer, a standard method for cell counting[54]. The procedure involved a meticulous dissection of the epididymis and cauda epididymis using fine scissors, followed by their transfer into a petri dish containing 1 ml of pre-warmed isotonic saline. The cauda epididymis was then carefully incised 3 to 4 times to facilitate the release of spermatozoa, after which the tissue was incubated at 37°C for a duration of 5 minutes to enable the sperm to disperse into the saline. Approximately 10 µl of the diluted sperm suspension was subsequently pipetted onto a blood counting chamber, and the sperm count was quantified under microscopic observation.
3. Detection of serum gonadal hormones
In accordance with the manufacturer's prescribed protocols, we conducted enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs) to quantify the serum concentrations of key gonadal hormones. Specifically, the levels of testosterone, luteinizing hormone (LH), and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) were measured using the respective Mouse ELISA Kits (E-OSEL-M0003 for testosterone, E-EL-M3053 for LH, and E-EL-M0511 for FSH, all procured from Elabscience, China).
4. Measurement of GSH, oxidized glutathione (GSSG), catalase (CAT), and malondialdehyde (MDA)
The concentrations of GSH and GSSG in testicular tissues were measured using a dedicated quantification assay kit procured from Beyotime (Catalog No. S0053, Shanghai, China). Additionally, the activities of CAT and the levels of MDA were determined using the respective assay kits obtained from Jiancheng (Catalog No. A007-1-1, Nanjing, China) and Solarbio (Catalog No. BC0025, Beijing, China).
5. Quantitative determination of arachidonic acid (AA)
The tissue levels of AA were precisely quantified employing a murine-specific ELISA kit designed for the accurate measurement of AA (Catalog No. RJ17198, Renjie, Shanghai, China).
6. Iron concentration and distribution analysis
The level of ferrous iron (Fe2+) in the testicular tissue was quantitatively assessed using specialized assay kit (Catalog No. E-BC-K773-M, Beyotime, Shanghai, China). Furthermore, the histological distribution of iron ions within the testis was visualized using a Prussian Blue Iron Stain Kit (Enhanced with DAB, Catalog No. G1428, Solarbio, Beijing, China). Briefly, the testicular sample was fixed and embedded with paraffin to make a 5µm section. These sections were subjected to staining with Perl’s working solution at 37°C for 20 minutes, followed by rinsing with distilled water. Subsequently, the sections were treated with an incubation working solution, incubated at 37°C for an additional 20 minutes, and finally stained with an enhanced working solution for 15 minutes. The spatial distribution of iron ions was then examined and documented using a high-resolution digital scanning microscope (Nikon, Japan).
7. Western blot analysis
Testicular tissue samples were homogenized in pre-chilled radio-immunoprecipitation assay (RIPA) buffer, and the protein extracts were obtained by centrifugation at 12,000×g for 15 minutes at 4°C. The protein samples were then fractionated on 10% sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) and transferred to polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF) membranes. Non-specific binding was minimized by blocking the membranes with a 5% solution of non-fat dried milk in Tris-buffered saline (TBS) (pH 7.2) for 1 hour at room temperature. Subsequently, the membranes were incubated overnight at 4°C with the following antibodies: anti-KEAP1 (1:500, A1820, Abclonal, China), anti-NAD(P)H: quinone oxidoreductase (NQO-1) (1:500, A23486, Abclonal, China), anti-SLC7A11 (1:500, A2413, Abclonal, China), anti-SLC40A1 (FPN) (1:500, A14885, Abclonal, China), anti-Ferritin Heavy Chain (FTH1) (1:500, A19544, Abclonal, China), anti-Acyl-CoA Synthetase Long-Chain Family Member 4 (ACSL4) (1:500, A6826, Abclonal, China), anti-Zonula Occludens-1 (ZO-1) (1:500, A0659, Abclonal, China), anti-Occludin (1:1000, A2601, Abclonal, China), anti-p53 (1:1000, A0263, Abclonal, China), anti-SQSTM1/p62 (1:1000, A7758, Abclonal, China), anti-LC3B (1:1000, BM4827, Boster, China), anti-IFN-γ (1:1000, A00393-3, Boster, China), anti-cleaved-caspase-3 (9664S, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA), anti-HO-1 (1:1000, A1346, Abclonal, China), anti-GPX4 (1:1000, 59735S, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA), anti-NOD-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) (1:1000, 15101, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA), anti-Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2) (1:1000, 12282T, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA), anti-CD71/TFR (1:1000, 13113, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA), anti-NRF2(1:1000, 12721T, Cell Signaling, Beverly, MA, USA). After removal of unbound antibodies using TBS containing 0.05% Tween 20, the membranes were incubated with the corresponding secondary antibodies for 1 hour at room temperature. β-actin served as an internal control to normalize the protein loading. The antigen-antibody complexes were visualized using an ultra-sensitive enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL) (NCM Biotech). The immunoreactive bands were quantified by densitometry using Image J software, a method previously validated in the literature[55].
8. Immunohistochemistry
Sections of paraffin-embedded testicular tissue, 5µm in thickness, were prepared sequentially. Following rehydration, antigen retrieval was executed via microwave. The immunohistochemical staining procedure was carried out utilizing a 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB) substrate kit (Catalog No. G1212, Servicebio, Wuhan, China). The protocol included the inhibition of endogenous peroxidase activity in the tissue sections using a 3% hydrogen peroxide solution for 25 minutes, succeeded by rinsing in PBS three times. Subsequently, antigenic sites were demarcated using a 3% bovine serum albumin solution for 30 minutes, after which the sections were incubated with the primary antibodies at 37°C for an overnight period. The primary antibodies utilized were as follows: GPX4 (1:500, GB114327), and NRF2 (1:1000, GB113808), both procured from Servicebio, Wuhan, China. On the subsequent day, the sections underwent incubation with the corresponding secondary antibodies followed by the application of DAB. Subsequently, the sections were counterstained with hematoxylin for a minute. The immunostained slides were visualized and captured using a digital scanning microscope at a magnification of 200×.
9. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR)
Total Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) was extracted with TRIzol reagent (T9424, Sigma-Aldrich, USA). Subsequently, the reverse transcription process was executed in accordance with the protocols provided by the manufacturer, utilizing the Takara cDNA Reverse Transcription Kits (Catalog number RR036a, TaKaRa, China). The resulting complementary DNA (cDNA) was then subjected to quantitative PCR (qPCR) on the quantitative PCR System (Model CFX384, BIO-RAD, USA). The relative quantification of mRNA expression was normalized to β-actin, and the data analysis was performed using GraphPad Prism 8.0 software. The sequences of the primers utilized in this study are delineated in Supplementary Table 1.
10. Analysis of T cells in testicular tissue via flow cytometry
Fresh mouse testes and spleens were meticulously dissected and immediately immersed in ice-cold RPMI 1640 medium (Catalog No. 10491, Solarbio, Beijing, China). The testes were further dissected and minced using scissors. The minced tissue was subjected to enzymatic digestion in a solution of RPMI 1640 supplemented with 0.5 mg/ml type IV Collagenase (Sigma), 0.1 mg/ml DNase I (Sigma-Aldrich), and 2% FBS at 37°C with agitation at 180 rpm for 20 minutes. Digestion was stopped by the addition of 1 ml of neutralization buffer, comprising RPMI 1640 with 2% FBS and 5 mM EDTA. The cell pellet was obtained via centrifugation (1,200g for 4min at 4°C) and subsequently resuspended in FACS buffer (PBS containing 2% FBS), filtered through a 100µm cell strainer and counted.
The cell suspensions were incubated with the following for 30 minutes on ice: Anti-mouse CD45-PE (BioLegend, Clone 30-F11), anti-mouse CD3-FITC (BioLegend, Clone 17A2), anti-mouse CD4-PerCP/Cy5.5 (BioLegend, Clone RM4-5), anti-mouse CD8α-Brilliant violet 421 (BioLegend, Clone 53 − 6.7). FACS buffer served as the diluent for all staining procedures. Then, they were transferred to round-bottom polypropylene FACS tubes. Data were collected using a BD LSR Fortessa X-20 cell analyzer (BD Biosciences), and subsequent analysis was conducted using FlowJo software version 10.
11. Detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in testicular tissue via flow cytometry
Testicular tissue, freshly excised, was meticulously collected and rinsed in ice-cold PBS to eliminate residual blood or debris. Subsequently, the tissue underwent mincing followed by enzymatic digestion utilizing a collagenase solution, facilitating cellular dissociation. The cell suspension was strained through a sterile mesh to achieve a homogeneous single-cell suspension. This suspension was then subjected to incubation with a ROS-sensitive fluorescent probe, 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA), at a temperature of 37°C for 30 minutes. After staining, the cells underwent a series of washes with PBS to remove unreacted probe, followed by routine collection procedures. The cells were resuspended in PBS, mixed gently, and filtered through a 100µm cell strainer into designated tubes for immediate flow cytometric analysis. Data were collected using a BD LSR Fortessa X-20 cell analyzer (BD Biosciences), and subsequent analysis was conducted using FlowJo software version 10.
12. TUNEL assay
The TUNEL cell apoptosis assay kit (Catalog No. G1502, Servicebio, Wuhan, China) was used to detect cell apoptosis in testis tissue sections. In detail, the sections were subjected to deparaffinization and gradient ethanol treatment. The sections were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde. After digestion with proteinase at 37°C for 10 minutes, the sections were then incubated with terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase and digoxigenin-labeled dUTP (DIG-dUTP) at 37°C for 2 hours, marking the 3′-OH end of fragmented DNA with DIG-dUTP. The sections were blocked with 5% BSA blocking solution at room temperature for 30 minutes. Subsequently, the sections were incubated with biotinylated digoxigenin antibody (diluted with SABC) at 37°C for 30 minutes, followed by washing three times, each time for 5 minutes. Additionally, the sections were incubated with SABC-FITC at 37°C for 30 minutes, followed by 2-(4-Amidinophenyl)-6-indolecarbamidine dihydrochloride (C1005, Beyotime) staining at room temperature for 5 minutes. After staining, the tissue sections were sealed with an anti-quenching mounting medium. The stained tissues were observed under an Olympus BX53 microscope, and TUNEL-positive cells emitted red fluorescence.
13. Statistical analysis
The data were presented as the mean values accompanied by the standard error of the mean (SEM). To compare the statistical differences between two distinct groups, a Student's t-test was employed in a two-tailed unpaired format. For the assessment of differences among more than two groups, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted, followed by post-hoc testing using Fisher's Least Significant Difference (LSD) method. Statistical significance was established at the threshold of P < 0.05. The aforementioned statistical analyses were conducted using GraphPad Prism software version 10.1.0.