Mean per capita intake of potatoes for Case 1 (baked, boiled, and mashed and mixtures), Case 2 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, and fried) and case 3 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried, and chips) were 0.11 ± 0.01, 0.22 ± 0.01, and 0.32 ± 0.01 cup eq respectively for NHANES 2001–2018. Mean per capita intake of potatoes (for all three definitions) was stable and did not change significantly (P > 0.05) over the last 18 years (9 NHANES cycles) among US adolescents (Fig. 1).
Demographics
Approximately 15.2% of adolescents were Case 1 potato (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) consumers. A lower (P < 0.05) proportion of potato consumers were male (-10.3%), Mexican American (-18.3%), other Hispanic (-28.4%), non-Hispanic Black (-16.4%), other ethnicity (-23.1%), and overweight (-13.0%), while a greater proportion of Case 1 potato consumers were non-Hispanic White (+ 16.1%) as compared to non-consumers (Table 1). All other demographic characteristics evaluated were similar (P > 0.05) among consumers and non-consumers potatoes in Case 1 (Table 1).
Table 1
Demographics associated with potato consumption in adolescents (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633), NHANES 2001–2018.
| Case 1 (Baked, Boiled, and Mashed and Mixtures) | Case 2 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, and Fried Potatoes) | Case 3 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, Fried Potatoes and Potato Chips) |
| Non-Consumer | Consumer | P value | Non-Consumer | Consumer | P value | Non-Consumer | Consumer | P value |
Sample N | 14,102 | 2,531 | | 9,455 | 7,178 | | 7,228 | 9,405 | |
Mean Age (years) | 13.6 ± 0.04 | 13.4 ± 0.1 | 0.1289 | 13.5 ± 0.04 | 13.6 ± 0.1 | 0.5562 | 13.6 ± 0.1 | 13.5 ± 0.1 | 0.5546 |
Gender (% Male) | 51.3 ± 0.7 | 46.0 ± 1.4 | 0.0006 | 52.2 ± 0.9 | 48.1 ± 1.0 | 0.0031 | 52.2 ± 0.9 | 49.0 ± 0.9 | 0.0192 |
Ethnicity | | | | | | | | | |
Mexican American (%) | 14.2 ± 0.9 | 11.6 ± 1.2 | 0.0037 | 14.9 ± 1.1 | 12.3 ± 0.8 | 0.0021 | 15.5 ± 1.1 | 12.4 ± 0.9 | 0.0003 |
Other Hispanic (%) | 6.69 ± 0.58 | 4.79 ± 0.64 | 0.0036 | 6.90 ± 0.64 | 5.64 ± 0.56 | 0.0306 | 7.17 ± 0.68 | 5.73 ± 0.52 | 0.0106 |
non-Hispanic White (%) | 56.0 ± 1.4 | 65.0 ± 2.0 | < 0.0001 | 56.6 ± 1.5 | 58.9 ± 1.6 | 0.0760 | 56.7 ± 1.6 | 58.2 ± 1.6 | 0.2819 |
non-Hispanic Black (%) | 14.6 ± 0.8 | 12.2 ± 1.1 | 0.0060 | 13.0 ± 0.8 | 15.8 ± 1.0 | 0.0001 | 11.8 ± 0.8 | 16.1 ± 1.0 | < 0.0001 |
Other (%) | 8.45 ± 0.51 | 6.50 ± 0.77 | 0.0130 | 8.67 ± 0.56 | 7.37 ± 0.56 | 0.0296 | 8.78 ± 0.63 | 7.59 ± 0.5 | 0.0459 |
Poverty Income Ratio | | | | | | | | | |
< 1.35 (%) | 32.2 ± 1.1 | 30.4 ± 1.8 | 0.3077 | 32.1 ± 1.2 | 31.6 ± 1.2 | 0.6925 | 31.9 ± 1.3 | 31.9 ± 1.2 | 0.9704 |
1.35–1.85 (%) | 10.8 ± 0.5 | 11.3 ± 1.0 | 0.6185 | 10.8 ± 0.6 | 10.9 ± 0.6 | 0.9480 | 10.6 ± 0.7 | 11.1 ± 0.6 | 0.5288 |
> 1.85 (%) | 57.0 ± 1.2 | 58.3 ± 1.7 | 0.4642 | 57.0 ± 1.3 | 57.5 ± 1.3 | 0.7167 | 57.5 ± 1.4 | 57.1 ± 1.3 | 0.7703 |
Education | | | | | | | | | |
< High School (%) | 98.6 ± 0.2 | 98.1 ± 0.5 | 0.3469 | 98.8 ± 0.2 | 98.1 ± 0.3 | 0.0204 | 98.9 ± 0.2 | 98.2 ± 0.2 | 0.0277 |
High School - < Bachelor Degree (%) | 1.42 ± 0.16 | 1.91 ± 0.49 | 0.3469 | 1.19 ± 0.16 | 1.92 ± 0.27 | 0.0204 | 1.15 ± 0.17 | 1.78 ± 0.23 | 0.0277 |
Physical Activity | | | | | | | | | |
Sedentary (%) | 14.5 ± 0.5 | 14.2 ± 1.0 | 0.8119 | 14.4 ± 0.6 | 14.4 ± 0.6 | 0.9965 | 14.7 ± 0.7 | 14.2 ± 0.6 | 0.5265 |
Moderate (%) | 24.6 ± 0.6 | 24.9 ± 1.3 | 0.8601 | 24.6 ± 0.7 | 24.7 ± 0.8 | 0.9820 | 24.4 ± 0.9 | 24.8 ± 0.8 | 0.7157 |
Vigorous (%) | 60.9 ± 0.7 | 60.9 ± 1.5 | 0.9982 | 60.9 ± 0.8 | 60.9 ± 0.9 | 0.9809 | 60.9 ± 1.0 | 61.0 ± 0.9 | 0.9163 |
Smoking Never (%) | 79.1 ± 0.6 | 82.3 ± 1.7 | 0.0702 | 79.9 ± 0.8 | 79.4 ± 0.9 | 0.6578 | 79.3 ± 0.8 | 79.9 ± 0.8 | 0.5726 |
Smoking Current (%) | 3.78 ± 0.35 | 3.01 ± 0.60 | 0.2444 | 3.88 ± 0.42 | 3.33 ± 0.37 | 0.2695 | 4.03 ± 0.51 | 3.34 ± 0.34 | 0.2338 |
Overweight (%) | 16.9 ± 0.4 | 14.7 ± 1.0 | 0.0439 | 16.7 ± 0.5 | 16.3 ± 0.7 | 0.6819 | 16.9 ± 0.6 | 16.2 ± 0.6 | 0.4541 |
Obese (%) | 19.3 ± 0.7 | 18.3 ± 1.0 | 0.3711 | 18.4 ± 0.7 | 20.2 ± 0.9 | 0.0788 | 18.4 ± 0.7 | 19.8 ± 0.8 | 0.1729 |
Data is presented as Mean ± Standard Error. “Other Hispanic” and “Other” are not sampled in a way to be nationally representative. |
Approximately 43.2% and 56.5% of adolescents were potato consumers by potato intake definition Case 2 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, and fried) and Case 3 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried, chips), respectively. For these potato definitions a lower (P < 0.05) proportion of adolescent consumers were male (-7.85% and − 6.13%, respectively), Mexican American (-17.4% and − 20.0%, respectively), other Hispanic (-18.3% and − 20.1%, respectively), other ethnicity (-15.0% and − 13.6% respectively), and below HS education (-0.71% and − 0.71% respectively), and a higher (P < 0.05) proportion were (P < 0.05) non-Hispanic Black (+ 21.5% and + 36.4%, respectively) and had a HS education (+ 61.3% and + 54.8% respectively). All other demographic characteristics evaluated were similar (P > 0.05) among consumers and non-consumers of potatoes in Case 2 and 3 (Table 1).
Diet Quality
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 1 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) as compared to non-consumers had higher HEI-2015 total score (+ 4.70%, P < 0.01), and the score gradually increased with increasing intake quartile (β = 0.77 ± 0.15, Pquartile trend<0.01). HEI-2015 subcomponent scores among potato consumers compared to non-consumers were also higher (P < 0.05) for total vegetables (+ 49.5%), total protein foods (+ 9.22%), refined grain (+ 24.2%) and added sugar (+ 5.76%); and gradually increased with increasing intake quartiles (β = 0.39 ± 0.02, β = 0.09 ± 0.02, β = 0.42 ± 0.05, β = 0.13 ± 0.04, respectively; Pquartile trend<0.01 for all). However, subcomponent scores among Case 1 potato consumers compared to non-consumers were lower for dairy and sodium (-5.61%, -10.1%, respectively; P < 0.01 for both) and gradually decreased with increasing intake quartiles (β=-0.15 ± 0.03, β=-0.17 ± 0.03, respectively; Pquartile trend<0.01 for both) (Table 2).
Table 2
Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2015 and sub-component scores in adolescents (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633) potato (Case 1; baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) consumers and non-consumers, and by intake quartiles, NHANES 2001–2018; gender combined data.
HEI 2015 Components | Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Potato intake quartiles for consumers (cup equivalents) |
Q1 (< 0.50) | Q2 (0.50 to < 0.59) | Q3 (0.59 to < 0.69) | Q4 (≥ 0.69) | Pquartile trend |
Total score | 44.7 ± 0.2 | 46.8 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 46.8 ± 0.7 | 45.3 ± 0.7 | 46.5 ± 0.7 | 48.4 ± 0.8 | < 0.0001 |
Component 1 (total vegetables) | 2.06 ± 0.02 | 3.08 ± 0.04 | < 0.0001 | 2.60 ± 0.09 | 2.94 ± 0.07 | 3.26 ± 0.09 | 3.52 ± 0.11 | < 0.0001 |
Component 2 (greens and beans) | 0.88 ± 0.03 | 0.85 ± 0.05 | 0.6393 | 1.02 ± 0.10 | 0.75 ± 0.11 | 0.83 ± 0.11 | 0.78 ± 0.10 | 0.3384 |
Component 3 (total fruit) | 2.07 ± 0.04 | 2.11 ± 0.06 | 0.5131 | 2.05 ± 0.13 | 1.89 ± 0.13 | 2.09 ± 0.12 | 2.39 ± 0.13 | 0.1010 |
Component 4 (whole fruit) | 1.82 ± 0.04 | 1.85 ± 0.06 | 0.6642 | 1.86 ± 0.14 | 1.48 ± 0.14 | 1.81 ± 0.13 | 2.26 ± 0.15 | 0.1095 |
Component 5 (whole grains) | 2.09 ± 0.04 | 2.12 ± 0.10 | 0.7451 | 2.16 ± 0.20 | 1.95 ± 0.18 | 2.04 ± 0.19 | 2.33 ± 0.20 | 0.5762 |
Component 6 (dairy) | 6.42 ± 0.05 | 6.06 ± 0.10 | 0.0001 | 6.08 ± 0.18 | 6.57 ± 0.19 | 5.82 ± 0.21 | 5.76 ± 0.22 | < 0.0001 |
Component 7 (total protein foods) | 3.58 ± 0.03 | 3.91 ± 0.05 | < 0.0001 | 4.04 ± 0.08 | 3.93 ± 0.07 | 3.81 ± 0.10 | 3.85 ± 0.11 | < 0.0001 |
Component 8 (seafood and plant protein) | 1.53 ± 0.03 | 1.51 ± 0.07 | 0.8394 | 1.57 ± 0.11 | 1.42 ± 0.11 | 1.44 ± 0.12 | 1.62 ± 0.17 | 0.9606 |
Component 9 (fatty acid ratio) | 4.09 ± 0.05 | 4.05 ± 0.13 | 0.7803 | 4.37 ± 0.23 | 3.85 ± 0.22 | 4.00 ± 0.21 | 4.00 ± 0.25 | 0.5025 |
Component 10 (sodium) | 4.75 ± 0.05 | 4.27 ± 0.10 | < 0.0001 | 4.45 ± 0.19 | 4.18 ± 0.21 | 4.41 ± 0.19 | 4.05 ± 0.19 | < 0.0001 |
Component 11 (refined grain) | 4.72 ± 0.05 | 5.86 ± 0.11 | < 0.0001 | 5.55 ± 0.23 | 5.45 ± 0.23 | 6.27 ± 0.19 | 6.16 ± 0.25 | < 0.0001 |
Component 12 (saturated fat) | 5.54 ± 0.05 | 5.60 ± 0.11 | 0.6196 | 5.75 ± 0.23 | 5.46 ± 0.21 | 5.54 ± 0.18 | 5.63 ± 0.24 | 0.7499 |
Component 13 (added sugar) | 5.21 ± 0.05 | 5.51 ± 0.12 | 0.0177 | 5.30 ± 0.19 | 5.48 ± 0.21 | 5.19 ± 0.22 | 6.04 ± 0.19 | 0.0031 |
Data adjusted for age, gender and ethnicity; and presented as Least Square Mean ± Standard Error. |
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 2 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried) as compared to non-consumers also had a higher (2.01%, P < 0.01) HEI-2015 total score, and higher (P < 0.01) subcomponent scores for total vegetables (36.8%), total protein foods (7.39%), fatty acid ratio (16.5%) and refined grain (27.5%). However, subcomponent scores among Case 2 potato consumers compared to non-consumers were lower (P < 0.01) for greens and beans (-20.0%), total fruit (-11.5%), whole fruit (-13.4%), whole grain (-18.5%), dairy (-8.64%), and seafood and plant protein (-11.9%) (Table 3).
Table 3
Healthy Eating Index (HEI) 2015 and sub-component scores associated with potato consumption in adolescents (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633) - NHANES 2001–2018; gender combined data.
| Case 2 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, and Fried Potatoes) | Case 3 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, Fried Potatoes and Potato Chips) |
| Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value |
Total score | 44.7 ± 0.2 | 45.6 ± 0.2 | 0.0062 | 44.7 ± 0.3 | 45.4 ± 0.2 | 0.0346 |
Component 1 (total vegetables) | 1.93 ± 0.03 | 2.64 ± 0.03 | < 0.0001 | 1.81 ± 0.03 | 2.57 ± 0.02 | < 0.0001 |
Component 2 (greens and beans) | 0.95 ± 0.03 | 0.76 ± 0.04 | < 0.0001 | 1.02 ± 0.04 | 0.75 ± 0.03 | < 0.0001 |
Component 3 (total fruit) | 2.18 ± 0.04 | 1.93 ± 0.04 | < 0.0001 | 2.18 ± 0.05 | 1.99 ± 0.04 | 0.0012 |
Component 4 (whole fruit) | 1.94 ± 0.05 | 1.68 ± 0.05 | < 0.0001 | 1.96 ± 0.05 | 1.73 ± 0.05 | 0.0002 |
Component 5 (whole grains) | 2.27 ± 0.05 | 1.85 ± 0.06 | < 0.0001 | 2.39 ± 0.06 | 1.86 ± 0.05 | < 0.0001 |
Component 6 (dairy) | 6.60 ± 0.06 | 6.03 ± 0.07 | < 0.0001 | 6.69 ± 0.07 | 6.09 ± 0.06 | < 0.0001 |
Component 7 (total protein foods) | 3.52 ± 0.04 | 3.78 ± 0.03 | < 0.0001 | 3.53 ± 0.04 | 3.72 ± 0.03 | 0.0002 |
Component 8 (seafood and plant protein) | 1.60 ± 0.03 | 1.41 ± 0.05 | 0.0004 | 1.62 ± 0.04 | 1.44 ± 0.04 | 0.0007 |
Component 9 (fatty acid ratio) | 3.81 ± 0.05 | 4.44 ± 0.08 | < 0.0001 | 3.70 ± 0.06 | 4.38 ± 0.07 | < 0.0001 |
Component 10 (sodium) | 4.64 ± 0.06 | 4.70 ± 0.07 | 0.4611 | 4.59 ± 0.07 | 4.73 ± 0.06 | 0.0882 |
Component 11 (refined grain) | 4.40 ± 0.06 | 5.61 ± 0.07 | < 0.0001 | 4.27 ± 0.07 | 5.42 ± 0.06 | < 0.0001 |
Component 12 (saturated fat) | 5.57 ± 0.05 | 5.53 ± 0.07 | 0.5763 | 5.55 ± 0.06 | 5.55 ± 0.06 | 0.9781 |
Component 13 (added sugar) | 5.33 ± 0.07 | 5.18 ± 0.07 | 0.1064 | 5.41 ± 0.07 | 5.15 ± 0.07 | 0.0073 |
Data adjusted for age, gender and ethnicity; and presented as Least Square Mean ± Standard Error. |
Table 4
Covariate (age, gender and ethnicity) adjusted energy and nutrient intakes in adolescents (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633) potato (Case 1; baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) consumers and non-consumers, by intake quartiles, NHANES 2001–2018; gender combined data.
| Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Potato intake quartiles for consumers (cup equivalents) |
Q1 (< 0.50) | Q2 (0.50 to < 0.59) | Q3 (0.59 to < 0.69) | Q4 (≥ 0.69) | Pquartile trend |
Energy (kcal) | 2094 ± 12 | 2225 ± 24 | < 0.0001 | 2187 ± 41 | 2189 ± 49 | 2157 ± 48 | 2366 ± 61 | < 0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (gm) | 276 ± 2 | 291 ± 3 | 0.0002 | 286 ± 6 | 286 ± 7 | 283 ± 7 | 308 ± 8 | 0.0001 |
Dietary fiber (gm) | 14.1 ± 0.1 | 15.3 ± 0.2 | < 0.0001 | 14.6 ± 0.4 | 14.5 ± 0.4 | 14.5 ± 0.4 | 17.5 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
Protein (gm) | 73.9 ± 0.5 | 82.8 ± 1.3 | < 0.0001 | 80.4 ± 1.8 | 82.1 ± 2.2 | 77.9 ± 2.0 | 90.7 ± 3.0 | < 0.0001 |
Calcium (mg) | 1029 ± 10 | 1023 ± 18 | 0.7320 | 1001 ± 31 | 1052 ± 33 | 960 ± 34 | 1080 ± 40 | 0.9113 |
Copper (mg) | 1.05 ± 0.01 | 1.18 ± 0.02 | < 0.0001 | 1.10 ± 0.03 | 1.12 ± 0.04 | 1.15 ± 0.03 | 1.35 ± 0.05 | < 0.0001 |
Iron (mg) | 15.2 ± 0.1 | 15.5 ± 0.2 | 0.2581 | 15.3 ± 0.4 | 15.5 ± 0.4 | 14.8 ± 0.5 | 16.5 ± 0.5 | 0.1380 |
Magnesium (mg) | 242 ± 2 | 267 ± 4 | < 0.0001 | 253 ± 6 | 259 ± 6 | 254 ± 6 | 302 ± 10 | < 0.0001 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 1315 ± 9 | 1402 ± 19 | < 0.0001 | 1372 ± 30 | 1405 ± 34 | 1327 ± 36 | 1502 ± 44 | < 0.0001 |
Potassium (mg) | 2205 ± 17 | 2617 ± 34 | < 0.0001 | 2382 ± 50 | 2471 ± 58 | 2521 ± 57 | 3086 ± 82 | < 0.0001 |
Selenium (µg) | 102 ± 1 | 109 ± 2 | 0.0003 | 108 ± 3 | 109 ± 3 | 101 ± 3 | 119 ± 4 | 0.0004 |
Sodium (mg) | 3363 ± 26 | 3665 ± 48 | < 0.0001 | 3578 ± 80 | 3625 ± 103 | 3493 ± 72 | 3959 ± 116 | < 0.0001 |
Zinc (mg) | 11.0 ± 0.1 | 12.0 ± 0.2 | < 0.0001 | 11.3 ± 0.3 | 11.8 ± 0.3 | 11.6 ± 0.4 | 13.3 ± 0.5 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin A (RE) (µg) | 584 ± 7 | 640 ± 17 | 0.0013 | 610 ± 22 | 632 ± 33 | 605 ± 29 | 711 ± 47 | 0.0017 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.78 ± 0.02 | 2.15 ± 0.03 | < 0.0001 | 1.96 ± 0.05 | 2.04 ± 0.07 | 2.07 ± 0.06 | 2.53 ± 0.09 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin B12 (µg) | 5.12 ± 0.07 | 5.30 ± 0.11 | 0.1633 | 5.13 ± 0.17 | 5.09 ± 0.18 | 4.96 ± 0.20 | 6.01 ± 0.33 | 0.0515 |
Thiamin (mg) | 1.65 ± 0.01 | 1.72 ± 0.03 | 0.0126 | 1.67 ± 0.04 | 1.72 ± 0.05 | 1.63 ± 0.05 | 1.87 ± 0.06 | 0.0046 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 2.08 ± 0.02 | 2.15 ± 0.03 | 0.0690 | 2.13 ± 0.05 | 2.15 ± 0.06 | 2.01 ± 0.06 | 2.29 ± 0.08 | 0.0483 |
Niacin (mg) | 23.0 ± 0.2 | 25.7 ± 0.4 | < 0.0001 | 24.7 ± 0.6 | 25.2 ± 0.9 | 24.4 ± 0.7 | 28.6 ± 1.1 | < 0.0001 |
Folate, DFE (µg) | 557 ± 6 | 554 ± 14 | 0.8296 | 550 ± 19 | 588 ± 36 | 527 ± 22 | 549 ± 24 | 0.6519 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 73.9 ± 1.4 | 91.0 ± 3.6 | < 0.0001 | 78.6 ± 4.3 | 85.0 ± 5.2 | 90.4 ± 4.9 | 109.6 ± 11.6 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (µg) | 5.33 ± 0.08 | 5.52 ± 0.15 | 0.2182 | 5.33 ± 0.25 | 5.62 ± 0.30 | 5.08 ± 0.25 | 6.06 ± 0.36 | 0.1189 |
Vitamin E (ATE) (mg) | 7.10 ± 0.10 | 7.45 ± 0.17 | 0.0834 | 7.50 ± 0.35 | 6.81 ± 0.35 | 7.27 ± 0.37 | 8.21 ± 0.44 | 0.0437 |
Vitamin K (µg) | 64.9 ± 1.3 | 79.3 ± 3.7 | 0.0003 | 81.0 ± 7.4 | 61.2 ± 3.4 | 84.5 ± 10.8 | 90.2 ± 7.3 | 0.0002 |
Total choline (mg) | 262 ± 3 | 301 ± 6 | < 0.0001 | 292 ± 10 | 293 ± 8 | 272 ± 8 | 343 ± 14 | < 0.0001 |
Data presented as Least Square Mean ± Standard Error. RE: retinol equivalent; DFE: dietary folate equivalent; ATE: alpha tocopherol equivalent |
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 3 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried, chips) as compared to non-consumers had a higher (1.57%, P < 0.05) HEI-2015 total score, and higher (P < 0.01) subcomponent scores for total vegetables (41.2%), total protein foods (5.38%), fatty acid ratio (18.4%) and refined grain (26.9%); and lower (P < 0.01) subcomponent score for greens and beans (-26.5%), total fruit (-8.72%), whole fruit (-11.7%), whole grain (-22.2%), dairy (-8.97%), seafood and plant protein (-11.1%), added sugar (-4.81%) (Table 3).
Nutrient Intake
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 1 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) as compared to non-consumers had higher (P < 0.05) intake of energy (+ 6.26%), carbohydrate (+ 5.43%), dietary fiber (+ 8.51%), protein (+ 12.0%), copper (+ 12.4%), magnesium (+ 10.3%), phosphorus (+ 6.62%), potassium (+ 18.7%), selenium (+ 6.86%), sodium (+ 8.98%), zinc (+ 9.09%), vitamin A (+ 9.59%), thiamine (+ 4.24%), niacin (+ 11.7%), vitamin B6 (+ 20.8%), vitamin C (+ 23.1%), vitamin K (+ 22.2%) and total choline (+ 14.9%). Intakes of all other nutrients evaluated were similar (P > 0.05) among consumers and non-consumers (Table 3). Increasing intake quartiles also gradually increased (Pquartile trend<0.05) intake of energy (β = 51.9 ± 10.2 kcal), carbohydrate (β = 5.86 ± 1.47 mg), dietary fiber (β = 0.55 ± 0.09 g), protein (β = 3.36 ± 0.50 g), copper (β = 0.06 ± 0.01 mg), magnesium (β = 10.6 ± 1.6 mg), phosphorus (β = 33.8 ± 7.2 mg), potassium (β = 174 ± 12 mg), selenium (β = 2.75 ± 0.75 µg), sodium (β = 116 ± 18 mg), zinc (β = 0.43 ± 0.08 mg), vitamin A (β = 23.2 ± 7.2), thiamine (β = 0.03 ± 0.01 mg), riboflavin (β = 0.03 ± 0.01 mg), niacin (β = 1.08 ± 0.18 mg), vitamin B6 (β = 0.15 ± 0.01 mg), vitamin C (β = 7.36 ± 1.73 mg), vitamin E (β = 0.16 ± 0.08 mg), vitamin K (β = 5.62 ± 1.46 µg) and total choline (β = 15.1 ± 2.2 mg) (Table 3).
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 2 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried) as compared to non-consumers had higher (P < 0.05) intake of energy (+ 11.5%), carbohydrate (+ 9.33%), dietary fiber (+ 6.47%), protein (+ 8.94%), copper (+ 8.74%), magnesium (+ 5.81%), phosphorus (+ 6.41%), potassium (+ 16.8%), selenium (+ 2.94%), sodium (+ 10.6%), zinc (+ 6.42%), niacin (+ 11.2%), vitamin B6 (+ 15.0%), vitamin C (+ 8.91%), vitamin E (+ 5.72%), vitamin K (+ 9.26%) and total choline (+ 11.3%); and lower (P < 0.05) intakes of vitamin A (-4.62%) and folate (-5.44%). Intakes of all other nutrients evaluated were similar (P > 0.05) among consumers and non-consumers of Case 2 potatoes (Table 5).
Table 5
Energy and nutrients intake associated with potato consumption in adolescents (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633), NHANES 2001–2018; gender combined data.
| Case 2 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and mixtures, and Fried Potatoes) | Case 3 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and mixtures, Fried Potatoes and Potato Chips) |
| Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value |
Energy (kcal) | 2017 ± 13 | 2249 ± 17 | < 0.0001 | 1985 ± 15 | 2220 ± 15 | < 0.0001 |
Carbohydrate (gm) | 268 ± 2 | 293 ± 2 | < 0.0001 | 264 ± 2 | 290 ± 2 | < 0.0001 |
Dietary fiber (gm) | 13.9 ± 0.1 | 14.8 ± 0.2 | < 0.0001 | 13.9 ± 0.2 | 14.6 ± 0.1 | 0.0005 |
Protein (gm) | 72.7 ± 0.6 | 79.2 ± 0.8 | < 0.0001 | 72.6 ± 0.7 | 77.7 ± 0.7 | < 0.0001 |
Calcium (mg) | 1037 ± 12 | 1017 ± 13 | 0.2000 | 1038 ± 13 | 1021 ± 11 | 0.2560 |
Copper (mg) | 1.03 ± 0.01 | 1.12 ± 0.01 | < 0.0001 | 1.02 ± 0.01 | 1.11 ± 0.01 | < 0.0001 |
Iron (mg) | 15.3 ± 0.2 | 15.2 ± 0.2 | 0.8170 | 15.3 ± 0.2 | 15.2 ± 0.1 | 0.5838 |
Magnesium (mg) | 241 ± 2 | 255 ± 3 | < 0.0001 | 239 ± 2 | 253 ± 2 | < 0.0001 |
Phosphorus (mg) | 1295 ± 11 | 1378 ± 13 | < 0.0001 | 1291 ± 12 | 1361 ± 11 | < 0.0001 |
Potassium (mg) | 2124 ± 18 | 2480 ± 25 | < 0.0001 | 2062 ± 22 | 2444 ± 21 | < 0.0001 |
Selenium (µg) | 102 ± 1 | 105 ± 1 | 0.0206 | 102 ± 1 | 105 ± 1 | 0.0504 |
Sodium (mg) | 3267 ± 26 | 3614 ± 35 | < 0.0001 | 3233 ± 32 | 3559 ± 31 | < 0.0001 |
Zinc (mg) | 10.9 ± 0.1 | 11.6 ± 0.1 | < 0.0001 | 10.9 ± 0.1 | 11.5 ± 0.1 | 0.0002 |
Vitamin A (RE) (µg) | 605.5 ± 8.7 | 577.9 ± 9.6 | 0.0174 | 613 ± 10 | 578 ± 9 | 0.0028 |
Thiamin (mg) | 1.66 ± 0.02 | 1.67 ± 0.02 | 0.7206 | 1.65 ± 0.02 | 1.67 ± 0.02 | 0.3245 |
Riboflavin (mg) | 2.09 ± 0.02 | 2.10 ± 0.02 | 0.7829 | 2.10 ± 0.03 | 2.09 ± 0.02 | 0.9084 |
Niacin (mg) | 22.4 ± 0.2 | 24.9 ± 0.3 | < 0.0001 | 22.3 ± 0.3 | 24.5 ± 0.2 | < 0.0001 |
Folate, DFE (µg) | 570 ± 7 | 539 ± 8 | 0.0026 | 572 ± 8 | 544 ± 7 | 0.0044 |
Vitamin B6 (mg) | 1.73 ± 0.02 | 1.99 ± 0.02 | < 0.0001 | 1.71 ± 0.03 | 1.95 ± 0.02 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin B12 (µg) | 5.10 ± 0.08 | 5.21 ± 0.07 | 0.2476 | 5.12 ± 0.09 | 5.17 ± 0.07 | 0.6395 |
Vitamin C (mg) | 74.1 ± 1.6 | 80.7 ± 1.9 | 0.0033 | 72.1 ± 1.6 | 80.7 ± 1.7 | 0.0001 |
Vitamin D (D2 + D3) (µg) | 5.45 ± 0.10 | 5.26 ± 0.10 | 0.1158 | 5.47 ± 1.0 | 5.29 ± 0.09 | 0.1232 |
Vitamin E (ATE) (mg) | 6.99 ± 0.13 | 7.39 ± 0.09 | 0.0116 | 6.60 ± 0.16 | 7.60 ± 0.10 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin K (µg) | 64.8 ± 1.7 | 70.8 ± 1.9 | 0.0103 | 65.9 ± 2.0 | 68.6 ± 1.6 | 0.2785 |
Total choline (mg) | 256.2 ± 3.0 | 284.7 ± 3.6 | < 0.0001 | 258 ± 4 | 277 ± 3 | 0.0001 |
Data adjusted for age, gender and ethnicity; and presented as Least Square Mean ± Standard Error. RE: retinol equivalent; DFE: dietary folate equivalent; ATE: alpha tocopherol equivalent |
Adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 3 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried, chips) as compared to non-consumers had higher (P < 0.01) intake of energy (+ 11.8%), carbohydrate (+ 9.85%), dietary fiber (+ 5.04%), protein (+ 7.02%), copper (+ 8.82%), magnesium (+ 5.86%), phosphorus (+ 5.42%), potassium (+ 18.5%), sodium (+ 10.1%), zinc (+ 5.50%), niacin (+ 9.87%), vitamin B6 (+ 14.0%), vitamin C (+ 11.9%), vitamin E (+ 15.2%) and total choline (+ 7.36%); and lower (P < 0.01) intakes of vitamin A (-5.71%) and folate (-4.90%). Intakes of all other nutrients evaluated were similar (P > 0.05) among consumers and non-consumers of Case 3 potatoes (Table 5).
Nutrient Adequacy
Compared to non-consumers, a lower (P < 0.05) proportion of adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 1 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures) were below the EAR for carbohydrate, protein, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, selenium, zinc, vitamin A, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6 and vitamin C, and a higher (P < 0.05) proportion were above AI for potassium, sodium and vitamin K (Table 6).
Table 6
Nutrient adequacy in adolescent (9–18 years of age, n = 16,633) potato consumers and non-consumers (NHANES 2001–2018, gender combined data).
| Case 1 (Baked, Boiled, and Mashed and Mixtures) | Case 2 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, and Fried Potatoes) | Case 3 (Baked, Boiled, Mashed and Mixtures, Fried Potatoes and Potato Chips) |
| Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value | Non-Consumers | Consumers | P value |
| % population below Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) |
Carbohydrate | 0.13 ± 0.04 | 0.01 ± 0.01 | 0.0026 | 0.18 ± 0.06 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.0154 | 0.22 ± 0.08 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.0206 |
Protein | 1.43 ± 0.30 | 0.19 ± 0.15 | 0.0002 | 1.85 ± 0.45 | 0.41 ± 0.14 | 0.0025 | 1.98 ± 0.56 | 0.62 ± 0.16 | 0.0203 |
Calcium | 61.9 ± 1.0 | 63.4 ± 2.1 | 0.5212 | 60.5 ± 1.2 | 64.4 ± 1.40 | 0.0313 | 60.1 ± 1.3 | 63.7 ± 1.2 | 0.0430 |
Copper | 7.16 ± 0.65 | 1.46 ± 0.42 | < 0.0001 | 7.93 ± 0.85 | 3.57 ± 0.45 | < 0.0001 | 9.16 ± 1.04 | 3.90 ± 0.38 | < 0.0001 |
Iron | 4.01 ± 0.37 | 2.65 ± 0.36 | 0.0084 | 4.15 ± 0.48 | 3.14 ± 0.29 | 0.0726 | 4.53 ± 0.57 | 3.16 ± 0.28 | 0.0306 |
Magnesium | 59.5 ± 0.8 | 48.1 ± 1.7 | < 0.0001 | 59.3 ± 0.9 | 55.5 ± 1.07 | 0.0071 | 59.9 ± 1.1 | 56.0 ± 0.9 | 0.0054 |
Phosphorus | 27.4 ± 1.0 | 18.8 ± 2.5 | 0.0011 | 29.3 ± 1.2 | 21.4 ± 1.3 | < 0.0001 | 29.3 ± 1.4 | 23.1 ± 1.19 | 0.0006 |
Selenium | 0.40 ± 0.11 | 0.04 ± 0.06 | 0.0042 | 0.43 ± 0.15 | 0.16 ± 0.07 | 0.1003 | 0.54 ± 0.20 | 0.17 ± 0.06 | 0.0774 |
Zinc | 15.1 ± 1.1 | 8.8 ± 1.6 | 0.0015 | 16.8 ± 1.3 | 10.4 ± 1.1 | 0.0002 | 17.2 ± 1.5 | 11.5 ± 1.1 | 0.0023 |
Vitamin A | 41.5 ± 1.1 | 30.0 ± 2.9 | 0.0002 | 37.9 ± 1.3 | 42.0 ± 1.5 | 0.0461 | 37.3 ± 1.5 | 41.6 ± 1.3 | 0.0294 |
Thiamin | 3.64 ± 0.51 | 1.10 ± 0.37 | 0.0001 | 3.90 ± 0.62 | 2.10 ± 0.38 | 0.0137 | 4.83 ± 0.71 | 1.99 ± 0.37 | 0.0004 |
Riboflavin | 2.47 ± 0.41 | 0.87 ± 0.30 | 0.0017 | 2.82 ± 0.50 | 1.41 ± 0.32 | 0.0166 | 2.81 ± 0.61 | 1.66 ± 0.28 | 0.0850 |
Niacin | 1.08 ± 0.27 | 0.11 ± 0.08 | 0.0005 | 1.68 ± 0.43 | 0.15 ± 0.07 | 0.0005 | 2.08 ± 0.53 | 0.24 ± 0.08 | 0.0006 |
Folate, DFE | 7.42 ± 0.84 | 5.75 ± 1.12 | 0.2337 | 6.96 ± 0.88 | 7.15 ± 0.82 | 0.8771 | 7.56 ± 1.00 | 6.82 ± 0.78 | 0.5621 |
Vitamin B6 | 6.12 ± 0.79 | 0.30 ± 0.16 | < 0.0001 | 7.85 ± 1.09 | 1.37 ± 0.35 | < 0.0001 | 8.80 ± 1.29 | 1.94 ± 0.39 | < 0.0001 |
Vitamin B12 | 2.58 ± 0.45 | 1.37 ± 0.44 | 0.0531 | 3.11 ± 0.57 | 1.48 ± 0.39 | 0.0174 | 3.33 ± 0.69 | 1.72 ± 0.35 | 0.0387 |
Vitamin C | 32.1 ± 1.4 | 17.2 ± 2.2 | < 0.0001 | 31.6 ± 1.7 | 26.3 ± 1.6 | 0.0224 | 33.3 ± 2.0 | 26.3 ± 1.5 | 0.0058 |
Vitamin D | 91.9 ± 0.6 | 91.3 ± 1.2 | 0.6822 | 90.6 ± 0.8 | 93.1 ± 0.8 | 0.0270 | 90.3 ± 0.9 | 92.9 ± 0.7 | 0.0226 |
Vitamin E | 88.3 ± 1.1 | 88.5 ± 2.1 | 0.9446 | 87.6 ± 1.3 | 89.5 ± 1.3 | 0.3225 | 90.2 ± 1.5 | 87.3 ± 1.3 | 0.1381 |
| % population above Adequate Intake (AI) |
Dietary fiber | 0.44 ± 0.10 | 0.31 ± 0.13 | 0.4215 | 0.57 ± 0.13 | 0.26 ± 0.08 | 0.0469 | 0.65 ± 0.18 | 0.33 ± 0.08 | 0.1037 |
Potassium | 28.3 ± 1.0 | 53.1 ± 2.5 | < 0.0001 | 25.1 ± 1.1 | 42.4 ± 1.5 | < 0.0001 | 22.7 ± 1.2 | 40.3 ± 1.3 | < 0.0001 |
Sodium | 99.6 ± 0.1 | 100 ± 0.04 | 0.0006 | 99.5 ± 0.2 | 99.9 ± 0.03 | 0.0020 | 99.2 ± 0.2 | 99.9 ± 0.03 | 0.0013 |
Vitamin K | 37.2 ± 1.6 | 54.4 ± 3.5 | < 0.0001 | 36.4 ± 1.8 | 46.2 ± 2.2 | 0.0007 | 37.0 ± 2.2 | 42.8 ± 1.9 | 0.0430 |
Total choline | 5.45 ± 0.60 | 6.72 ± 1.43 | 0.4122 | 5.96 ± 0.76 | 5.25 ± 0.80 | 0.5189 | 6.35 ± 0.91 | 5.25 ± 0.67 | 0.3302 |
DFE: dietary folate equivalent |
Similarly, compared to non-consumers, a lower (P < 0.05) proportion of adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 2 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried) were below the EAR for carbohydrate, protein, copper, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin C; and a higher (P < 0.05) proportion were above AI for potassium, sodium and vitamin K. However, a higher (P < 0.05) proportion of consumers compared to non-consumers were below the EAR for calcium, vitamin A and vitamin D; and a lower (P < 0.05) proportion were above AI for dietary fiber (Table 6).
Compared to non-consumers, a lower (P < 0.05) proportion of adolescent consumers of potatoes in Case 3 (baked, boiled, mashed and mixtures, fried, chips) also were below the EAR for carbohydrate, protein, copper, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, zinc, thiamine, niacin, vitamin B6, vitamin B12 and vitamin C, and a higher (P < 0.05) proportion were above AI for potassium, sodium and vitamin K. However, a higher (P < 0.05) proportion of consumers compared to non-consumers were below the EAR for calcium, vitamin A and vitamin D (Table 6).