The result observed across the districts significantly different * P < 0.01, ***P < 0.001, ns = not significant (P > 0.05)
3.8 Selection criteria of goats
3.8.1 Selection criteria for breeding Bucks
The results as presented in Table 8 indicate that the appearance (bright eyes, broad shoulders, compact body, short and thick necks) of the Bucks were considered as the primordial trait for their selection. The observance are in close accordance with those from Bale Zone of Oromia Region (Asefa & Kebede, 2013). The traits as indicated correlate with the masculinity. The study also indicates that Bucks with strong legs are preferred as such animals have ability to graze for long distances (Banerjee et al., 2014). The study also indicates that coat color is considered as an important criteria for selecting the Bucks (Woldeyohannes, 2020), which can be ascribed to socio-cultural value to the owners (Asefa & Kebede, 2013), besides it has been recorded that animals with lighter coat color are able to thrive well in warm locations especially in the lowlands (Woldeyohannes, 2018).. Pedigree of the Bucks are generally from their maternal lines and are not formally maintained (Banerjee et al., 2014; Grum, 2010). However, studies by Banerjee et al., (2014) have indicated that farmers maintain oral records of their animals which are often questionable.
Table 8
Trait preference for selecting the breeding Bucks in the study areas
Preference traits for selecting breeding Buck
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Ranking
|
Index
|
Ranking
|
Index
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
|
Appearance
|
93
|
7
|
0
|
0.41
|
88
|
8
|
1
|
0.39
|
Coat color
|
7
|
23
|
21
|
0.12
|
10
|
29
|
21
|
0.15
|
Testicular character
|
13
|
5
|
2
|
0.07
|
12
|
6
|
8
|
0.08
|
Growth rate
|
2
|
18
|
29
|
0.10
|
1
|
16
|
26
|
0.08
|
Pedigree
|
2
|
18
|
39
|
0.11
|
5
|
20
|
38
|
0.13
|
Sexual ability
|
0
|
0
|
9
|
0.04
|
0
|
6
|
7
|
0.03
|
Other (tail & hoof)
|
3
|
40
|
20
|
0.15
|
4
|
36
|
19
|
0.14
|
3.8.2 Selection criteria for selecting breeding Does
The results as presented in Table 9 indicate that phenotypic selection (appearance) of the Does are mostly considered as a primordial criteria for their selection, the observations are in close accordance with results of Asefa & Kebede, (2013). The Does with thin and long neck, deep body, and well developed udder are considered as criteria for their selection. The other important trait that is considered for selection are the mothering ability of the Does and their lactal yield (Abraham et al., 2017). Does with good lactal yield are expected to nurse strong and healthy kids (Gemiyu, 2009), besides goat milk are also an important part of the diets of the people residing in many parts of the country (Park, 2007). The importance's of coat color as a selection criteria have already been discussed ahead.
Table 9
Trait preference for selecting the breeding Does in the study areas.
Preferrence traits for selecting breeding doe
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
Index
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
Index
|
Appearance
|
93
|
24
|
3
|
0.45
|
78
|
27
|
3
|
0.40
|
Coat color
|
24
|
23
|
15
|
0.18
|
36
|
33
|
17
|
0.27
|
Mothering Ability
|
0
|
9
|
5
|
0.03
|
1
|
7
|
5
|
0.03
|
Kids Survival
|
0
|
5
|
4
|
0.02
|
0
|
3
|
7
|
0.02
|
Pedigree
|
0
|
9
|
16
|
0.05
|
0
|
16
|
21
|
0.07
|
Milk Yield
|
0
|
34
|
51
|
0.17
|
0
|
16
|
39
|
0.10
|
Twinning Ability
|
0
|
3
|
7
|
0.02
|
0
|
3
|
6
|
0.02
|
Other (hoof, tail & ear)
|
3
|
13
|
19
|
0.08
|
4
|
15
|
22
|
0.09
|
3.9 The feed source of goats in the study areas
The feed resources for the goats reared in the study areas have been presented in Table 10. The study shows that during the dry season ample crop aftermaths are available in the agriculturally productive Aroresa district, the importance of crop aftermath as a source of fodder for goats are in close accordance with those of Abraham et al., (2017) from Western Tigray, North Ethiopia. The crop aftermaths at times have good amount of grains as a result of shattering. This is supplemented by cut and carry grasses and browses which are in close accordance with those of Gatew et al., (2015). The cut grasses are usually provided to the sick, infirm, pregnant and nursing Does (Abraham et al., 2017). The presence of private grazing land and low intensification of agriculture allows Loka Abaya respondents to get access to communal grazing lands, the results are very similar to those of Tsigabu, (2015) from Nuer Zone. However, the quality of the forage and pasture is deteriorating over the time, which can be ascribed to encroachment by invasive species and also overgrazing (Mihertu, 2018). In the wet season besides communal grazing land, the goats are grazed on the private grazing lands; this is because the crop aftermaths are not available during this season. Cut and carry system of feeding is prevalent in the wet season (irrespective of the location) as many times the goats especially the old, infirm, pregnant and nursing Bucks/Does are usually reared indoors because of vagaries of nature especially during the rains (Gemiyu, 2009).
The respondents also indicated that there was variation in the availability of fodder, across the study areas, the observations were in close accordance with those of Assefa, (2007). The shortage was higher in wet season for Aroresa district because in district the lands are usually cultivated and hence it’s expected that there will be shortage of forage and fodder under such circumstances, while reverse was true for Loka Abaya district.
Table 10
The feed source of goats and the seasonal feed availability in the study areas
Feed sources
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Feed Source in dry season
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
Index
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
Index
|
Communal grazing Land
|
27
|
27
|
15
|
0.21
|
75
|
36
|
7
|
0.42
|
Crop Aftermath
|
85
|
23
|
0
|
0.42
|
36
|
39
|
10
|
0.27
|
Cut grass and browse
|
8
|
47
|
45
|
0.23
|
5
|
23
|
50
|
0.15
|
Grazing fallow Land
|
0
|
23
|
0
|
0.06
|
1
|
18
|
1
|
0.06
|
Crop residue
|
0
|
0
|
60
|
0.08
|
3
|
4
|
52
|
0.10
|
Feed Source in wet season
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Communal grazing Land
|
1
|
4
|
24
|
0.05
|
59
|
13
|
18
|
0.31
|
Private grazing Land
|
4
|
70
|
29
|
0.27
|
2
|
58
|
26
|
0.21
|
Grazing fallow land
|
12
|
15
|
8
|
0.11
|
13
|
16
|
7
|
0.10
|
Crop residue
|
0
|
27
|
10
|
0.09
|
2
|
33
|
24
|
0.13
|
Cut grass and brows
|
103
|
2
|
13
|
0.48
|
44
|
0
|
45
|
0.25
|
3.10 Goats flocks herding mechanisms
Table 11 results indicate that the goats were rarely reared together with other livestock which is a good venture. The goats reared in Aroresa were herded alone, this is in close accordance with those of Tsegaye, (2009) from Metema. Rearing of goats alone has some positive and also some negative consequences, grazing the flock alone can prevent the spread of many diseases across the flocks (Animut & Goetsch, 2008). However, rearing the flocks aside the other goats (from the neighbors) can often lead to inbreeding within the flocks (Kosgey et al., 2006). The study further indicates that the goats are provided with adequate housing, provision of housing protects the goats against dangers, apart from predators (Asefa & Kebede, 2013). The study also indicates that in areas where land and labour shortages exists the respondents preferred to reduce their flock size, this is in accordance with the findings of Legesse et al., (2008) from Southern Ethiopia. Land shortages often lead to lack of fodder and forage (which was observed in Aroresa district) and therefore, in such conditions the flock sizes are usually minimized (Assefa, 2007). The study also indicates that farmers are aware of the importance of minerals in livestock diets; similar findings were also reported by Gebrechristos & Dugma, (2013) around Jimma. Minerals play important roles in various physiological processes and hence it is imperative that feeding of minerals can play significant role in production and reproduction processes of livestock (Zeleke et al., 2016). Studies also show that Bole (mineral soil) are the most preferred means of the provision, which is also in close accordance with those of Zeleke et al., (2016). However, care has to be taken so as to make sure that the mineral soil is not further contaminated and hence therefore, the region where this soil presents needs to be fenced off. The study also indicated that the respondents from Loka Abaya purchase the mineral supplement which is usually in form of table salt; these observations too are in close accordance with the findings of Gatew et al., (2015).
Table 11
The herding mechanism and sources of minerals supplement for goats (%).
Parameters
|
Choices
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
X2-value
|
How do you keep your goats?
|
Together with other species
|
11.7
|
20
|
15.8
|
3.13ns
|
Separately from other Species
|
88.3
|
80
|
84.2
|
|
Way of herding
|
Alone
|
89.2
|
5
|
47.1
|
170***
|
With neighboring goat
|
10.8
|
95
|
52.9
|
|
Source of Mineral
|
Bole
|
91.7
|
34.2
|
62.9
|
85.02***
|
Purchased
|
8.3
|
65.8
|
37.1
|
|
Reason of supplying mineral
|
To improve growth rate
|
1.7
|
0.00
|
0.8
|
69.9***
|
To improve body condition
|
15
|
61.2
|
37.7
|
|
To increase milk yield
|
41.7
|
6.9
|
24.6
|
|
All
|
41.7
|
31.9
|
36.9
|
|
The result observed across the districts significantly different *** P < 0.001, ns = not significant (p > 0.05).
The findings also indicate that the respondents provide the minerals for improving the milk yield of the Does besides the overall body condition and their growth, these findings are also in close accordance with the findings of Yadessa, (2015) and Zeleke et al., (2016). Feeding of minerals also tend to improve the immune system of the animals and therefore, assist in overall improvement of the production and reproduction potential of the animals (Yadessa, 2015).
3.11 Housing system for the goats in the study areas.
The result pertaining to the housing system of the goats presented in Table 12 shows that in most of the cases the goats were housed along with their owners, these findings are in close accordance with those of Desalew, (2008) and (Gemiyu, 2009). Housing of the goats along with their owners might be ascribed to prevent goats from theft (Gemiyu, 2009). However, housing goats alone can help prevent the spread of zoonotic diseases. The study also indicates that in most of the cases the floor is made up of mud with proper slope and drainage mechanism, which helps in absorbing the urine of the goats. However, such floors are difficult to clean and can help in spreading of diseases and parasites. The walls in most of the cases made of wood, which is locally available materials, which is in accordance with the result of Abraham et al., (2017). The wooden walls can keep the room warm during colder days, but wood is also prone to ecto-parasites and fire alike. The roof of the houses are made of grass, which is locally available and cheap (Abraham et al., 2017). However, proneness to fire and also predators should be considered when such houses are being constructed.
Table 12
Housing /Enclosure/ of goat both dry and wet season in the study areas (%).
Parameters
|
Response of HH
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
X2-value
|
Housing in dry season
|
In family house
|
84.2
|
76.7
|
80.4
|
2.14ns
|
|
Separate house
|
15.8
|
23.3
|
19.6
|
|
Housing in wet season
|
In family house
|
83.3
|
74.2
|
78.8
|
3.013ns
|
Separate house
|
16.7
|
25.8
|
21.2
|
|
Housing materials
|
|
Floor
|
Wall
|
Roof
|
|
Mud
|
100
|
-
|
-
|
|
Wood
|
-
|
100
|
|
|
Grass
|
-
|
-
|
100
|
|
The result observed across the districts are not different (P > 0.05) ns = not significant.
Water source and watering frequency of goats
The results (Table 13) show that in A district water from the river is the major source across both the dry and wet season, these observations are in close accordance with those of Alemu, (2015). Water from the rivers is permanent so care has to be taken not to contaminate it with upstream carcasses (Amenu, 2013). Water from bore well is also provided to the goats in Loka Abaya district, this is in close accordance with those of Asefa & Kebede, (2013). Rain water is used for the goats during the rainy season in Loka Abaya district. However, care has to be taken to ensure that the water is clean and that the rain water is not too old and contaminated. The study further indicates that water is provided to the goats at least once a day, which is in close accordance with those of Gatew et al., (2015) from Bati area. During the dry season the forage usually lack moisture and hence the animals need water quite frequently; it’s advisable that the goats be provided with water adlib (Gatew et al., 2015). The results also indicate that during the dry season the water is mostly made available adlib across both study locations, which also corresponds to the result of Alemu, (2015). However, in some cases water is made available once in two or three days, under such condition the animals are quite stressed and hence can influence their productive and reproduction capacity adversely.
Table 13
Water sources and watering frequency of goats in different season (%).
Source of water in dry season
|
Response of HH
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
X2-value
|
Major water sources
|
River
|
100
|
30
|
65
|
129.23***
|
Bore well
|
0.00
|
70
|
35
|
|
Source of water in wet season
|
River
|
100
|
48.3
|
74.2
|
83.59***
|
Rain Water
|
0.00
|
51.7
|
25.8
|
|
Watering frequency
(dry season)
|
Once a day
|
60.8
|
82.5
|
71.7
|
15.49***
|
Once in two days
|
38.8
|
17.5
|
26.7
|
|
Once in three days
|
3.3
|
0.00
|
1.7
|
|
Watering frequency
(wet season)
|
Feely Available
|
60
|
37.5
|
48.8
|
68.103***
|
Once a day
|
1.7
|
0.00
|
0.8
|
|
Once in two days
|
5
|
31.7
|
28.3
|
|
Once in three days
|
33.3
|
10.8
|
22.1
|
|
The result observed across the districts significantly different **P < 0.001. HH = Household
Goat health management in the study areas
The findings (Table 14) shows the most common goat disease is a form of accidental death locally called ″Godosha″ which causes damages in liver of the goats, diarrhea, and oral inflammation locally known as ″Fetele″, affects the young and old aged goats particularly, coughing, and nasal discharge locally called ″Gansho″, skin wound and inflammation locally called ″Bijajisha″. The study also indicates most of the respondents preferred to take the sick animals to the veterinary clinic near the kebeles, the observations are also in close accordance with those of Abraham et al., (2017). The results indicate that respondents also use traditional ethno-veterinary treatment methods using medicinal herbs to treat their goats those who are very far away from veterinary clinics. Hence, there is a need for either establishing veterinary clinics at shorter distances or allowing the private veterinary practitioner’s in the area.
Table 14
Goats health management systems across the districts in the study areas.
Management methods
|
Response of HH
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
X2-value
|
What do you do when your goat sick?
|
Treat with ethno veterinary
|
32.5
|
15
|
23.8
|
10.14**
|
Take to veterinary center
|
67.5
|
85
|
76.2
|
|
Do you have veterinary service
|
Yes
|
100
|
100
|
100
|
|
No
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
|
Distance to Veterinary service
|
< 1 km
|
25
|
42.5
|
33.8
|
8.21**
|
1–5 km
|
75
|
57.5
|
66.2
|
|
Vaccination timing
|
After report of disease
|
60
|
70.8
|
65.4
|
10.44**
|
After certain animal died
|
10
|
0.8
|
5.4
|
|
Before Out break
|
30
|
28.3
|
29.2
|
|
The result observed across the districts significantly different **P < 0.01. HH = Household. |
The study further indicates that vaccinations are provided to all the goats, which is a welcome gesture and need to be replicated in other areas too. However, regarding the timings of the vaccination, most of the respondents indicated that the vaccinations are provided after incidences have been reported in the area, similar reports have also been indicated by Tsegaye, (2009). Thus, the zonal and regional veterinary officials should develop annual vaccination calendar for their livestock.
3.14. Castration and fattening practice
The results in Table 15 indicate that most of the respondents from Aroresa district did not castrate their Bucks, while the reverse was true for the goats reared at Loka Abaya district. The society considered castration as not to give birth and which was deviate from natural and not allowed by their cultures (Asefa & Kebede, 2013). The study further shows that most of the Bucks are castrated using traditional methods, which are naturally painful and may lead to their death too. Traditional method of castration methods have also been known to lead to infections as the wound is usually exposed and prone to infections in the castration season (Abebe et al., 2013). The study also indicates that majority of the Bucks are castrated after they attain maturity, which of course defies the reason for controlling their breeding ability; these observations are in close accordance with those of Gatew et al., (2015). As observed in the report, the reason for castrating the Bucks are generally for obtaining better price which is also in close accordance with those of Gatew et al., (2015). The castrates usually tend to fatten well if provided with proper feeding and care. The study also shows that most of the respondents castrate their Bucks in the dry season, during the dry season the risk of infection at the site of the castrate site is low. However, during the dry season the availability of the feed and fodder too is less and hence can influence the chances of wound healing. The study also shows that the castrates are provided with supplementary feed to facilitate wound healing (Desalew, 2008). The study also indicates that the period of providing the supplements usually last around 3 months, typically enough to cure the wound. The results reveal that the supplemental feeding is supplied to the castrates as well as to the expended does (who are also supposed to carry children) and may later be sold out, these conclusions are also in near agreement with those of the castrates (Asefa & Kebede, 2013). The results also show that young Does are also provided with supplementary feed so as to facilitate conception and lactal yield of the Does.
Table 15
Castration and Fattening Practice of Goat in the study areas (%).
Castration Practices
|
Responses of HH
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
Do you Castrate your Buck
|
Yes
|
40
|
80
|
60
|
No
|
60
|
20
|
40
|
Method of Castration
|
Modern method
|
29.2
|
38.5
|
35.4
|
Traditional method
|
74.8
|
61.5
|
64.6
|
Age of Castration
|
< 1 year
|
4.2
|
17.7
|
13.2
|
> 1 year
|
95.5
|
82.3
|
86.8
|
Reason of castration
|
Control breeding
|
0.0
|
19.4
|
13
|
Improve fattening
|
33.3
|
18.4
|
23.3
|
For better price
|
66.7
|
62.2
|
63.7
|
Season of Castration
|
Dry
|
91.7
|
63.2
|
72.7
|
Wet
|
8.3
|
36.8
|
27.3
|
Mean-time duration for providing supplementary feed for Castrated Buck ( months) (Mean ± SE)
|
3.23 ± 0.1
|
3.17 ± 0.08
|
3.19 ± 0.06
|
The result observed across the districts significantly different * (P < 0.05), ***P < 0.001, ns = not significant (p > 0.05).
3.15 Breeding mechanism of goat in the study areas
The findings as presented in Table 16 is indicative that the majority of the respondents in Loka Abata district prefer to rear Bucks, the findings are also in close accordance with the observations of Tesfahun & Kebede, (2013). However, those from Aroresa district do not rear Bucks in the flock, this is evident from the fewer numbers of kids born from the Does. The study further indicates that there are higher chances of inbreeding in Aroresa district as the numbers of Bucks are fewer and sharing of Bucks are commonly observed. Sharing of Bucks and fewer numbers of Bucks can often lead to high incidences of inbreeding and also it does not allow genetic improvement (Jaitner et al., 2001; Kosgey et al., 2006). However, there are a few respondents who reared more than one Buck which is desirable as it can facilitate within flock selection (Alemu, 2015). The study also indicated that the Bucks are usually home born, they still leads flock to inbreeding, which of course is not desirable in the flock for prolonged period (Abegaz, 2014). The study further indicates that the reason given by the respondents varied across the locations, while those in the LA district reported that the reason was because of their whole flock structure, which may also be ascribed to the fact that predatory attacks are common in the area. The study from Aroresa district indicates that most of the respondents preferred to rear extra Bucks for fattening purposes, typically they were usually either outlived their productive life or castrates. The study further indicates that the primordial reason for rearing the Bucks were for breeding purpose, while those which were old and/or incapable of mating were usually used for fattening purpose. The study further indicates that mating is panmectic (random mating) and the age of the Bucks are not monitored for the purposive of breeding; the findings are in close accordance with those of (Banerjee et al., 2014) from Southern Ethiopia. Allowing the Bucks to serve at a very young age can adversely influence their growth and therefore the respondents need to be made informed and prevented from using the Bucks at an early age.
Table 16
Breeding mechanisms of goats across the districts in the study areas (%).
Characteristics
|
Response of HH
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Overall
|
X2 -value
|
Do you have breeding Buck
|
Yes
|
28.3
|
82.5
|
55.4
|
71.25***
|
No
|
71.7
|
17.5
|
44.6
|
|
If yes, how many Bucks you have
|
One
|
64.7
|
50.4
|
50.4
|
4.97ns
|
Two
|
23.5
|
27.3
|
26.3
|
|
More than two
|
11.7
|
27.3
|
23.3
|
|
Source of these Bucks
|
From own flock born
|
91.2
|
90.9
|
91
|
0.002ns
|
From market
|
8.8
|
9.1
|
9
|
|
Why you keep more than one Buck
|
Due to having large flock size
|
0.0
|
50
|
41.4
|
12.8**
|
For social status
|
0.0
|
6.9
|
5.7
|
|
For both fattening and mating
|
100
|
43.1
|
52.9
|
|
Do you fix age at first mating
|
Yes
|
1.7
|
3.3
|
2.5
|
0.68ns
|
No
|
98.3
|
96.7
|
97.5
|
|
Average year of Buck serving in flock
|
|
2.5 ± 0.08
|
2.8 ± 0.07
|
2.7 ± 0.06
|
0.7
|
The result observed across the districts significantly different * (P < 0.05), ***P < 0.001, ns = not
3.16 Constrains of goat production in the study areas
The findings pertaining to the major constraints of rearing goats in the study areas across the two seasons are presented in Table 17. The results indicated that the constraints varied across the locations, which are in close accordance with those of Assefa, (2007) who reported that every location has its unique problems. The feed shortage has been reported as the primordial reason in the Aroresa district across irrespective of the season, this can be ascribed to shortages of land and those allotted for grazing too. Fodder deficiency leads to late maturity of the goats which also leads to poor body weight and low immunity (Mogas & Bogale, 2012). The shortage of labor was also considered as a significant constraint, which can be due to lack of employment opportunities and also migration of young people to the cities. The findings from Loka Abaya district indicated the water shortages as the most important constraint, water is one of the nutrients constraints which can lead to serious consequences. The availability of water is not only essential, but also the water should be clean and free from any foreign debris and parasites alike. Moreover, the watering point should be selected so that feces and animal carcass are not pulled, as this can lead to spread of diseases among the flock (Bekele & Kebede, 2016). This is evident from high incidences of diseases among the flocks in the study areas; this can be minimized by two approaches, management of the animals and vaccination of the animals for those diseases which are vaccine preventable (Gemiyu, 2009). Therefore, the veterinary professionals from the areas are expected to chart out the vaccination schedule for different classes of livestock and ensure that the same is strictly adhered. The study also shows that there were incidences of predators in Loka Abaya district during the wet season, which is why the respondents need to ensure separate coating and, if possible, provide food and water for the young, nursing and the pregnant animals (who are the most vulnerable classes). The predators can also cause enormous damage to the flock if they are not provided with proper housing (Alemu, 2015). Therefore, it is important that the flocks are properly housed in the night and that the houses are strong and properly ventilated. The drainage system of the houses needs to be properly constructed so that it ensures proper outflow of urine and that the houses are dry even in the wet season (Ayalew et al., 2013). Lack of market in Loka Abaya district may be ascribed to inadequate local connectivity and many respondents undergo distress selling which in turn benefits the middlemen. This can be solved by improving accessibility of sellers and buyers alike to infrastructure development.
Table 17
Major constrains for goat production with respect to season in the study areas
Major constraints based different season
|
Aroresa
|
Loka Abaya
|
Ranking
|
Index
|
Ranking
|
Index
|
Dry season
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
|
1st
|
2nd
|
3rd
|
|
Feed shortage
|
62
|
33
|
18
|
0.37
|
7
|
19
|
12
|
0.1
|
Water shortage
|
2
|
7
|
5
|
0.04
|
82
|
30
|
6
|
0.43
|
Disease
|
5
|
9
|
38
|
0.1
|
9
|
16
|
44
|
0.14
|
Drought
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0.0
|
13
|
20
|
15
|
0.13
|
Market
|
1
|
6
|
5
|
0.03
|
0
|
5
|
12
|
0.04
|
Lack of superior genotype
|
15
|
15
|
30
|
0.15
|
3
|
10
|
9
|
0.05
|
Predator
|
0
|
0
|
10
|
0.01
|
2
|
10
|
15
|
0.06
|
Labor
|
35
|
50
|
14
|
0.30
|
4
|
10
|
7
|
0.05
|
Wet season
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Feed shortage
|
87
|
27
|
6
|
0.44
|
2
|
1
|
0
|
0.01
|
Disease
|
7
|
21
|
23
|
0.12
|
70
|
29
|
20
|
0.40
|
Market
|
0
|
11
|
28
|
0.07
|
8
|
30
|
39
|
0.17
|
Lack of superior genotype
|
0
|
18
|
48
|
0.12
|
11
|
19
|
20
|
0.13
|
Predator
|
0
|
0
|
0
|
0.00
|
25
|
24
|
14
|
0.19
|
Labor
|
26
|
43
|
15
|
0.25
|
4
|
17
|
27
|
0.10
|