Table 1 shows the prevalence of family planning measures (Ever use any contraception method, Ever had a terminated pregnancy, and sterilization) by the marriage cohorts. About half of the married women in the 1962-66 cohort had ever used any contraception. In the marriage cohort of 1972-76, the highest percentage of married women had ever used any contraception. This cohort coincided with that regime of the Indian government which had adopted coercive measures of family planning. For the recent cohort, about 13 percent of the married women had ever used any contraception. Nearly one in every four women of the marriage cohort 1957-61 had a terminated pregnancy. Pregnancy termination is one such measure that has declined among women of successive cohorts except few. The decline in termination in pregnancy can be attributed to the improvement in medical care and better health-care infrastructures. About half of the women in marriage cohorts from 1967-71, 1972-76, and 1977-81 adopted sterilization as a measure of family planning. The highest prevalence of sterilization among women is found to be associated with the marriage cohort of 1972-76.
Table 1: Prevalence of family planning measures (Ever use any contraception method, Ever had a terminated pregnancy, and sterilization) by the marriage cohorts in India
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
Ever Use any Contraception Method
|
Ever had a terminated pregnancy
|
Sterilization
|
Total Sample
|
1957-1961
|
42.4
|
24.9
|
42.0
|
3,125
|
1962-1966
|
49.7
|
23.4
|
48.5
|
9,057
|
1967-1971
|
55.3
|
22.6
|
53.2
|
16,446
|
1972-1976
|
56.5
|
22.1
|
53.5
|
26,145
|
1977-1981
|
54.5
|
20.0
|
50.4
|
42,126
|
1982-1986
|
52.2
|
17.7
|
47.9
|
75,416
|
1987-1991
|
49.9
|
16.2
|
45.1
|
1,06,839
|
1992-1996
|
52.3
|
17.2
|
46.7
|
1,07,428
|
1997-2001
|
51.9
|
17.4
|
45.2
|
1,06,021
|
2002-2006
|
46.6
|
17.3
|
39.1
|
97,166
|
2007-2011
|
32.9
|
15.8
|
23.9
|
93,282
|
2012-2016
|
12.6
|
8.1
|
8.2
|
66,051
|
Total
|
45.6
|
16.8
|
39.9
|
7,49,102
|
Table 2 shows the prevalence of ever use of contraception among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration. In the marriage cohorts of 1967-71 and 1977-81, 100 percent of women with marital duration 15-19 years and 5-9 years respectively had ever used contraception. In the marriage cohort of 1972-76, more than half of the women with marital duration 15-19, 20-24, 25-29, and 30+ had ever used contraception. Around 13 percent of women with 0-4 years of marital duration, of marriage cohort 2012-16, had ever used any contraception.
Table 2: Prevalence of ever use of contraception among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration in India
|
|
Marital duration
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
0-4
|
5-9
|
10-14
|
15-19
|
20-24
|
25-29
|
30+
|
1957-1961
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
42.4
|
1962-1966
|
|
|
|
|
0.0
|
50.3
|
48.6
|
1967-1971
|
|
|
|
100.0
|
55.7
|
54.1
|
56.5
|
1972-1976
|
|
|
0.0
|
53.8
|
58.5
|
59.3
|
55.6
|
1977-1981
|
|
100.0
|
46.5
|
57.1
|
59.2
|
58.7
|
54.8
|
1982-1986
|
|
27.9
|
49.2
|
57.8
|
62.6
|
58.9
|
57.4
|
1987-1991
|
9.3
|
31.5
|
49.8
|
63.0
|
61.3
|
60.2
|
|
1992-1996
|
12.0
|
31.1
|
54.0
|
61.5
|
61.1
|
|
|
1997-2001
|
9.1
|
36.9
|
58.2
|
59.5
|
|
|
|
2002-2006
|
12.5
|
47.5
|
53.0
|
|
|
|
|
2007-2011
|
25.4
|
35.7
|
|
|
|
|
|
2012-2016
|
12.6
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 3 shows the prevalence of terminated pregnancy among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration. Women with 0-4 years of marital duration in various cohorts have lesser termination of pregnancies than the women in 5-9 years of marital duration. The result found that the termination of pregnancies was higher among the women who had a higher marital duration than those women who had lesser marital duration. As the marital duration increases, there are perceived chances of higher termination of pregnancy as with increase in marital duration, the exposure time increases. In the marriage cohort of 2012-16, about 8 percent of women with 0-4 years of marital duration ever had a terminated pregnancy.
Table 3: Prevalence of ever had a terminated pregnancy among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration in India
|
|
Marital duration
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
0-4
|
5-9
|
10-14
|
15-19
|
20-24
|
25-29
|
30+
|
1957-1961
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
24.9
|
1962-1966
|
|
|
0.0
|
0.0
|
|
24.34
|
21.7
|
1967-1971
|
|
|
|
|
23.2
|
22.6
|
20.9
|
1972-1976
|
|
|
0.0
|
23.0
|
23.1
|
21.7
|
18.7
|
1977-1981
|
|
0.0
|
20.9
|
23.0
|
23.6
|
18.0
|
13.2
|
1982-1986
|
|
17.2
|
23.0
|
23.2
|
19.5
|
14.0
|
14.4
|
1987-1991
|
9.2
|
18.7
|
22.0
|
21.7
|
16.0
|
15.2
|
|
1992-1996
|
10.5
|
18.7
|
21.0
|
17.9
|
17.2
|
|
|
1997-2001
|
8.4
|
18.5
|
18.4
|
18.1
|
|
|
|
2002-2006
|
9.8
|
17.2
|
18.7
|
|
|
|
|
2007-2011
|
13.0
|
16.8
|
|
|
|
|
|
2012-2016
|
8.1
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 4: Prevalence of sterilization among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration in India
|
|
Marital duration
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
0-4
|
5-9
|
10-14
|
15-19
|
20-24
|
25-29
|
30+
|
1957-1961
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
42.0
|
1962-1966
|
|
|
0.0
|
100.0
|
|
48.9
|
47.8
|
1967-1971
|
|
|
|
100.0
|
52.9
|
51.9
|
56.0
|
1972-1976
|
|
|
0.0
|
49.4
|
55.0
|
57.2
|
55.0
|
1977-1981
|
|
100.0
|
40.2
|
50.9
|
55.1
|
57.2
|
54.2
|
1982-1986
|
|
19.6
|
41.0
|
51.2
|
59.7
|
57.2
|
56.5
|
1987-1991
|
2.0
|
21.3
|
41.0
|
58.1
|
57.9
|
58.0
|
|
1992-1996
|
3.2
|
21.6
|
47.6
|
56.8
|
56.8
|
|
|
1997-2001
|
3.5
|
28.8
|
50.8
|
53.1
|
|
|
|
2002-2006
|
8.2
|
39.6
|
44.9
|
|
|
|
|
2007-2011
|
15.1
|
26.8
|
|
|
|
|
|
2012-2016
|
8.2
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Table 4 shows the prevalence of sterilization among women of different marriage cohorts by their marital duration. Sterilization was once a most trusted measure of family planning, but in recent times the sterilization has not been the preferred choice. Nearly all the women in the cohorts of 1962-66 and 1967-71 with a marital duration of 15-19 years had opted for sterilization. Only 8 percent of women with 0-4 years of marital duration in the marriage cohort of 2012-16 had opted for sterilization. The rate of sterilization has increased consistently with the increase in marital duration in most of the marriage cohorts. More than 50 percent of the women, who are corresponding to the 1972-76 cohort by their marital duration, had sterilization. Sterilization was used as a coercive measure of family planning in India during 1976-77.
Table 5: Odds of family planning measures among women of various marriage cohorts in India
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
Ever Use any Contraception Method
|
Ever had a terminated pregnancy
|
Sterilization
|
1957-1961
|
|
|
|
1962-1966
|
1.66*
|
0.88*
|
1.05
|
1967-1971
|
2.62*
|
0.91*
|
1.02
|
1972-1976
|
3.41*
|
0.88*
|
1.04
|
1977-1981
|
4.16*
|
0.85*
|
1.1
|
1982-1986
|
4.07*
|
0.8*
|
1.05
|
1987-1991
|
3.6*
|
0.68*
|
0.95
|
1992-1996
|
3.79*
|
0.65*
|
1.05
|
1997-2001
|
3.91*
|
0.61*
|
1.23
|
2002-2006
|
3.65*
|
0.55*
|
1.47*
|
2007-2011
|
3.53*
|
0.62*
|
1.37*
|
2012-2016
|
1.6*
|
0.32*
|
1.4*
|
Controlled variable are State, Place of residence, Women education level, Husband education level, religion, caste, Wealth index and Duration of marriage, * shows that it is significant at 5% level
|
Table 5 shows the result of regression analysis by keeping the 1957-61 cohort as a reference cohort. For the analysis, variables of state, place of residence, women education level, husband education level, religion, wealth index, and duration of marriage were controlled. The result found that ever used any contraceptive method is higher for all the marriage cohort than the reference cohort; the trend, however, is not the same. For the marriage cohort of 1977-81, the ever use of any contraception method is highest than the rest of cohorts, this cohort faced the regressive government policies where sterilizations were conducted forcefully. The termination of pregnancy has been declining in the successive cohorts, except few cohorts. The use of sterilization is not significant for most of the cohorts, except for the recent three cohorts. In recent times, sterilization has become more regular, and women are opting for sterilization. Women in the recent cohorts are about 1.4 times more likely to opt for sterilization than the women in the reference cohort.
Table 6: Percentage of women in various cohorts desiring additional children after attaining the parity of three in India
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
Atleast have 3 children
|
Wants more children
|
1957-1961
|
91.7
|
1.0
|
1962-1966
|
89.0
|
1.8
|
1967-1971
|
87.3
|
3.5
|
1972-1976
|
83.8
|
6.3
|
1977-1981
|
77.3
|
9.7
|
1982-1986
|
66.9
|
13.1
|
1987-1991
|
53.2
|
19.3
|
1992-1996
|
48.4
|
16.7
|
1997-2001
|
42.2
|
18.4
|
2002-2006
|
31.7
|
26.1
|
2007-2011
|
11.7
|
45.2
|
2012-2016
|
0.5
|
82.5
|
Total
|
43.9
|
25.9
|
Table 6 shows the probability of having more children after having three children from the women’s perspective. In India, the fertility has been high since long, and that is why we choose to ask the probability of having more children after having three children. Two premises can be drawn from this table; first is that the fertility is declining continuously and the proportion of women having three children reduced from about 92 percent of women in 1957-61 cohort to 0.5 percent of women in the 2012-16 cohort. Second, as the proportion of women having three children decreasing in the successive cohorts, the probability that women want more children is increasing in the successive cohort, except 1992-96. Taking all the cohorts together, around 44 percent of women had three children, and of them, 26 percent of women wanted more children. The desire of having more children even after having three children is determined by many factors like son preference, poverty, social status, and social security.
Table 7 depicts the ever use of contraception among different cohorts of the women during all the four rounds of NFHS. The result found that ever use of contraception has decreased among the recent cohorts in all the four rounds of survey. The ever use of contraception is higher among the cohorts of the 70s and 80s.
Table 7: Prevalence of Ever use of contraception among women of various cohorts
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
Ever use of contraceptive
|
NFHS-1
|
NFHS-2
|
NFHS-3
|
NFHS-4
|
1957-1961
|
42.6
|
37.5
|
|
|
1962-1966
|
49.3
|
51.1
|
|
|
1967-1971
|
55.3
|
56.0
|
54.3
|
|
1972-1976
|
54.7
|
59.5
|
57.1
|
|
1977-1981
|
48.6
|
59.3
|
58.9
|
49.8
|
1982-1986
|
31.9
|
55.1
|
61.3
|
53.4
|
1987-1991
|
12.8
|
41.3
|
62.0
|
55.6
|
1992-1996
|
3.8
|
20.9
|
53.9
|
57.2
|
1997-2001
|
|
5.6
|
36.9
|
55.6
|
2002-2006
|
|
|
15.4
|
48.2
|
2007-2011
|
|
|
|
30.4
|
2012-2016
|
|
|
|
12.6
|
Table 8 depicts the parity at the time when the women opted for sterilization. This is one of the important indicators that help in determining the usefulness of sterilization. The result found that sterilization has increased among the women with 0-2 parity for the successive cohorts. The result found that among the older cohorts, the sterilization was preferred after 5+ parity; and for the recent cohorts, sterilization is being preferred with 0-2 parity. About 40 percent of women have opted for sterilization after attaining 0-2 parity, and nearly 46 percent of women have opted sterilization after achieving 3-4 parity. Nearly 15 percent of women went for sterilization after attaining the 5- parity.
Table 8: Percentage of women in various cohorts opted for sterilization after attaining a certain parity
|
Marriage Cohorts
|
Parity at Sterilization
|
0-2
|
3-4
|
5+
|
1957-1961
|
4.52
|
28.52
|
66.95
|
1962-1966
|
6.57
|
36.69
|
56.74
|
1967-1971
|
8.3
|
43.91
|
47.78
|
1972-1976
|
11.64
|
53.63
|
34.73
|
1977-1981
|
19.14
|
56.83
|
24.03
|
1982-1986
|
26.18
|
54.74
|
19.08
|
1987-1991
|
35.56
|
49.47
|
14.97
|
1992-1996
|
43.25
|
46.17
|
10.59
|
1997-2001
|
51.13
|
42.52
|
6.35
|
2002-2006
|
62.55
|
35.42
|
2.03
|
2007-2011
|
80.71
|
19.01
|
0.28
|
2012-2016
|
83.76
|
14.54
|
1.7
|
Total
|
39.49
|
45.55
|
14.96
|