Taxonomic features of wild edible plants
A total of 35 species of wild edible plants were recorded in FPM, which belong to 15 families and 25 genera. On the level of family, ten species of Liliaceae were reported as very prominent. Also, six species of Rosaceae, three species of Chenopodiaceae, two species of Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Ranunculaceae, and Brassicaceae were reported, and each of the other eight families contained only one species. On the level of genus, it has recorded eight species of Allium with prominence. Moreover, it has reported two species of Lilium, Potentilla and Paeonia, and it showed each of the other 21 genera with only one species.
Food categories
According to the original records, the author created five categories of food use based on the mode of use by the folk for classification of wild plant edibles. The groups included wild grain and grain substitutes, wild vegetables, wild fruits, tea substitutes, and seasonings sourced from wild (Table 1). Among them, Allium lineare L. was reported to be used as both vegetable and seasoning, Paeonia lactiflora Pall. Furthermore, Paeonia anomala L. used as both grain substitutes and tea substitutes, and Polygonum viviparum L. were recorded as for the use of both grain substitutes and seasoning.
Table 1 Wild edible plants and number of species arranged in food categories
Food Categories
|
Wild Grain and
Grain Substitutes
|
Wild Vegetables
|
Wild
Fruits
|
Tea
Substitutes
|
Wild
Seasonings
|
Species Number
|
12
|
9
|
3
|
8
|
7
|
Original records, ethnobotanical inventory and discussion
Wild Grain and Grain Substitutes
The original records of wild grain and grain substitutes in FPM were translated as follows:
(a) Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.) Moq. [Agriophyllum arenarium M. B.](Note: The scientific name in square brackets is the name adopted in the original text, and the accepted name is taken in this paper.): Since ancient times, the locals have collected a large number of seeds in a good year and made them into rice or flour for consumption.
(b) Corispermum mongolicum Iljin.: The locals collected its seeds, mashed them into powder and fried them to process for food.
(c) Kalidium gracile Fenzl: Seeds were collected, ground into a powder then fried for meals.
(d) Leymus racemosus (Lam.) Tzvel. [Elymus giganteus Vahl]: It has seeds that are similar to Psammochloa villosa. Mongolians has a long tradition of collecting them since ancient times. And it is used as food in the form of grain and dried flour.
(e) Lilium martagon L.: Used in the form of fresh or dried bulbs for food by the locals.
(f) Lilium pumilum DC. [Lilium tenuifolium Fisch.]: Bulbs have been widely used as food. The newly harvested (usually in autumn) bulbs were often boiled in milk or consumed with buttermilk. Bulbs could also be purchased for storage in rind (the floating film of butter) or oil. The locals considered this kind of oil or milk skin as a good food.
(g) Paeonia lactiflora Pall.[Paeonia albiflora Pall.]: The local people cooked the fat and tuberous root as food, or made into food similar to oat flour.
(h) Paeonia anomala L.: People used it in the same way as the previous species (note: the previous species in FPM was Paeonia lactiflora).
(i) Polygonum viviparum L.: Wild mice collect a large number of starchy rhizomes for winter and the rations are hidden in special underground storage. Hence, the rhizomes of Polygonum viviparum were usually obtained from the underground warehouses of wild mice. Such practice had been performed since ancient times, the collected rhizomes of Polygonum viviparum would be cooked and applied as seasoning for cooking meat or flour.
(j) Potentilla anserina L.: The local people use starchy roots for food.
(k) Psammochloa villosa (Trin.) Bor: The locals usually harvest its Caryopsis and use it for food in the form of flour and rice.
(l) Rheum nanum Siev. ex Pall.: The roots were dried and ground into flour for making pancakes by herdsmen.
Wild grain and grain substitutes are sourced from the starch-rich parts, such as seeds, bulbs, roots and rhizomes, comprising 12 species of wild plants which account for 34.28% of all edible plant species. The current paper listed the plant species, containing seeds used as grain as wild grain and the plant species whose underground parts of bulbs, roots and rhizomes were used as grain substitutes (Table 2).
A large portion of wild grain and grain substitute plants might correlate to the underdevelopment of grain production in Mongolia at the time. The nomadic Mongolian herdsmen could not guarantee food supply at a particular time since the nomadic Mongolians had not developed agriculture and food production in the past. However, they select and collected wild grain and grain substitutes from viable plants to meet the demand for starch in their dietary structure.
Among wild grain and plants with grain substitute, intake method of bulbs of Lilium pumilum was carefully combined with traditional local dairy products. The collection method for Polygonum viviparum (common name: alpine bistort) rhizomes involved a process of plundering the food of mice. Local Mongols referred to a gathering of rhizomes stored by mice as "opening the alpine bistort palace (mine)"[31]. It demonstrated the special ecological relationship among people, plants, and animals.
Table 2. Ethnobotanical inventory of wild grain and grain substitutes in FPM
Scientific name
|
Local name
(in Mongolian Cyrillic)
|
Parts used
|
Purposes
|
Usage
|
Agriophyllum squarrosum (L.) Moq.
|
цурхил, сулъхир, сюръкулъ
|
seeds
|
grain
|
rice, flour
|
Corispermum mongolicum Iljin.
|
хорон хамхаг,
харалтай хамхаг
|
seeds
|
grain
|
parched flour
|
Kalidium gracile Fenzl
|
шар будургана,
шар мод
|
seeds
|
grain
|
parched flour
|
Leymus racemosus (Lam.) Tzvel.
|
сулъ, хара сулъсулъ,
цаган сулъ
|
seeds
|
grain
|
rice, parched flour
|
Lilium martagon L.
|
шара тумыс
|
bulbs
|
grain substitutes
|
|
Lilium pumilum DC.
|
цаган тумыс, сарана
|
bulbs
|
grain substitutes
|
boiled in milk;
fresh bulbs are eaten raw; stored in cream or oil
|
Paeonia anomala L.
|
яган цэнэ, цэнэ
|
roots
|
grain substitutes
|
boil the roots or made into like oat flour
|
Paeonia lactiflora Pall.
|
цаган цэнэ,
цэнэ,
мандарвъ цэцэг
|
roots
|
grain substitutes
|
boil the roots or made into like oat flour
|
Polygonum viviparum L.
|
мэхэр
|
rhizomes
|
grain substitutes
|
flour
|
Potentilla anserina L.
|
шчигэнэ
|
roots
|
grain substitutes
|
--
|
Psammochloa villosa (Trin.) Bor
|
сулъ,хара сулъ
|
seeds
|
grain
|
flour, rice
|
Rheum nanum Siev. ex Pall.
|
баджуна
|
roots
|
Grain substitutes
|
flour
|
Mongolians have a long history of eating bulbs of Lilium pumilum, and it can be traced back to the end of the 12th century [18] when Genghis Khan was a child. The Mongolian residents of Arhorchin Banner, Xilingol League, Ordos plateau and Ejina Banner of China are still using the seeds of Agriophyllum squarrosum as a source of wild grain [1-4]. Agriophyllum squarrosum was probably the most common wild plant as grain for Mongols. Mongolians in the Ordos plateau also used seeds of Psammochloa villosa as wild grain [3]. Genus Corispermum and Kalidium are important wild grain plants used by Mongolians. FPM has shown that Mongols in the Mongolia had been using the seeds of Corispermum mongolicum as grain, whereas, another species of Corispermum dilutum (Kitag.) C. P. Tsien & C. G. Ma, Corispermum declinatum Stephan ex Iljin gained popularity in Inner Mongolia [1,3]. Mongols in the Mongolia used the seeds of Kalidium gracile as grain, but the Mongols in Inner Mongolia preferred another species of Kalidium foliatum (Pall.) Moq. [2]. The Mongols in Mongolia and Ejina Banner of Inner Mongolia shared the same practice in the use of flesh roots of Rheum nanum as grain substitutes [2]. The bulbs of Lilium martagon and Lilium pumilum had been used as grain substitutes in Mongolia, but Inner Mongolians select the bulbs of Lilium pumilum and Lilium concolor Salisb. var. pulchellum (Fischer) Regel as fruit or snacks and consumed it raw [1,4]. However, the young plant of Lilium pumilum and Potentilla anserina were consumed as vegetable by the Mongols in Daqinggou of Inner Mongolia, China[10].
Wild vegetables
The original records of wild vegetables in FPM were translated as follows:
(a) Allium altaicum Pall.: The locals collected the juicy and sweet bulbs (weighing up to 100g) for food. The green leaves cannot be used for food because of extensive fiber content. According to the description (1881-1883) of G. N. Potanin, Allium altaicum was produced in Khangai district and exported to Urgoo (Ургу). Before the Chinese revolution, commercial companies exported thousands of poods(пуд)of bulbs from Uliastay to China.
(b) Allium leucocephalum Turcz.: Local people use it as food.
(c) Allium lineare L.: Local people use it as food.
(d) Allium ramosum L. [Allium odorum L.]: Local people use it as food.
(e) Allium senescens L.: It is considered a very resourceful plant by the locals. For example, the bulbs, the lower part of the stems and the tender leaves could all used for food. Harvested fresh plant could be purchased and stored for later use in winter. It is required to processing through fermentation, drying or crushing before storage. Sometimes it could be mixed with goat cheese (aaruul) and baked into pancakes.
(f) Allium victorialis L.: The tender leaves can be consumed in fresh or salted state. It is sold in large quantities in the local markets of Ulaanbaatar and Altanbulag.
(g) Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum.[Antitoxicum sibiricum (L.) Pobed.]: The locals used its young fruit for making pickles.
(h) Pugionium dolabratum Maxim.[Pugionium cristatum Kom.]: The herdsmen salted the young plants of Pugionium dolabratum and consumed.
(i) Ulmus pumila L.: The local people cooked the immature fruit in salted water.
Wild vegetables were sourced from uncultivated plants such as part of a young plant, tender leaves, young fruits, the lower part of stems, and bulbs, comprising nine species of wild plants which account for 25.71% of all edible plant species (Table 3). The nomadic Mongols had not developed vegetable planting technique in the past. Thus, they select and used uncultivated vegetables from the wild.
Among the wild vegetables, six species were reported as Allium. Edible parts of Allium senescens consisted of bulbs, the lower part of the stems and the tender leaves. Its storage method was fully integrated with the characteristics of living tradition among nomadic people. Yunatov provided the trade history of Allium altaicum in the 1880s according to the description (1881-1883) of G. N. Potanin [32],.
Table 3. Ethnobotanical inventory of wild vegetables in FPM
Scientific name
|
Local name
(in Mongolian Cyrillic)
|
Parts used
|
Allium altaicum Pall.
|
соншн, джумагыл,
согоно, сарымсак
|
bulbs
|
Allium leucocephalum Turcz.
|
гогод
|
not described in FPM; could be tender leaves
|
Allium lineare L.
|
гогод
|
not described in FPM; could be tender leaves
|
Allium ramosum L.
|
гогод
|
not described in FPM; could be tenderleaves
|
Allium senescens L.
|
мангир
|
bulbs, the lower part of stems, tender leaves
|
Allium victorialis L.
|
халяг
|
tender leaves
|
Cynanchum thesioides (Freyn) K. Schum.
|
тэмэний хох
|
young fruits
|
Pugionium dolabratum Maxim.
|
дзэрлэг лован
|
young plant
|
Ulmus pumila L.
|
хайляс
|
young fruits
|
Mongols have a long history of using Allium ramosum, Allium senescens and Allium victorialis in diets, and the record of dietary application can be traced back to the 12th century [18]. It is reported that nine species of Allium were used as vegetables, non-staple food and seasonings by the Inner Mongolians [15]. Among them, Allium ramosum had been very special in terms of use [14]. The Mongols in Arhorchin Banner also used Allium ramosum, Allium senescens, Allium victorialis, Cynanchum thesioides, Ulmus pumila as wild vegetables [1]. In addition to using Cynanchum thesioides and Ulmus pumila as vegetables, Mongols in Arhorchin Banner also included young fruits of the above species as fruits in their dietary structure [5]. Tender leaves, as well as inflorescens of Allium ramosum and Allium senescens, and young fruits of Cynanchum thesioides were consumed as vegetables by the Mongols in Daqinggou of Inner Mongolia, China [10]. The Mongols in Alashan Left Banner of Alashan League used young fruits of Cynanchum thesioides as edible fruits [6]. Mongols in Xilingol League also used Allium ramosum, Allium senescens, Cynanchum thesioides as wild vegetables [4]. The Mongols in the Ordos plateau also used Cynanchum thesioides, Pugionium dolabratum, Ulmus pumila as wild vegetables. In addition to Pugionium dolabratum, Pugionium cornutum (L.) Gaertn was also eaten as vegetable [3]. Instead of using Pugionium dolabratum, the Mongols in Ejina Banner of Alashan League used another species of Pugionium cornutum (L.) Gaertn. as vegetables [2].
Wild fruits
The original records of wild vegetables in FPM were translated as follows:
(a) Fragaria orientalis Losinsk.: The fruit is bright red and edible.
(b) Malus baccata (L.) Borkh.[Malus pallasiana Juz.]: Small spherical fruits (up to 1 cm in diameter) serve as food for local people.
(c) Nitraria sibirica Pall.: Local people use its fruit for food.
There are only three species of wild fruits recorded, accounting for 8.57% of all edible plant species (Table 4).
Table 4. Ethnobotanical inventory of wild fruits listed in FPM
Scientific name
|
Local name
(in Mongolian Cyrillic)
|
Parts used
|
Fragaria orientalis Losinsk.
|
гудзэлъцзгэнэ
|
Fruits
|
Malus baccata (L.) Borkh.
|
Урил, улир
|
Fruits
|
Nitraria sibirica Pall.
|
Топцог, сундул,хармаг
|
Fruits
|
It is reported that Malus baccata have been consumed as a fruit by Mongols for a long time. Malus baccata was used as wild fruit in Arhorchin Banner and Xilingol League [1,4,5]. Also, there are records of using Nitraria sibirica as wild fruit in the Ordos plateau, in the Ejina Banner and in the Alshan Left Banner of Alashan League. Apart from that, Nitraria sibirica, Nitraria tangutorum Bobr were also used; furthermore, Nitraria roborowskii Kom. were also consumed as wild fruits [2,3,6].
Tea substitutes
The original records of tea substitutes in FPM were translated as follows:
(a) Bergenia crassifolia (L.) Fritsch: Used as tea substitutes.
(b) Clematis hexapetala Pall.: The locals widely use it as tea substitutes.
(c) Geranium pseudosibiricum J. Mayer: Local people widely use it as tea substitutes.
(d) Paeonia anomala L.: People use it in the same way as the previous species (note: the earlier species in FPM was Paeonia lactiflora).
(e) Potentilla fruticosa L.: Local people used it as tea substitutes since ancient times.
(f) Rosa acicularis Lindl.: Used as tea substitutes.
(g) Sanguisorba officinalis L.: Leaves and roots are used as tea substitutes.
Tea substitutes are sourced from leaves, roots, and the aboveground parts of possibly eight species of wild plants, accounting for 22.85% of all edible plant species (Table 5). Drinking milk tea had become one of the characteristics of the Mongolian diet and culture. Mongols have been drinking brick tea (a type of compressed tea) for a long time. The habit of drinking tea can be seen as the direct driving force of choosing and using tea substitutes from local wild plants by Mongol people. The tea substitutes sourced from the wild can relieve the shortage of tea when the brick tea may be unavailable for purchase in a period.
Table 5. Ethnobotanical inventory of tea substitutes in FPM
Scientific name
|
Local name
(in Mongolian Cyrillic)
|
Parts used
|
Bergenia crassifolia (L.)Fritsch.
|
бадан
|
not described in FPM; could be aboveground parts
|
Clematis hexapetala Pall.
|
Зогдыр
|
not described in FPM; could be aboveground parts
|
Geranium pseudosibiricum J. Mayer
|
мягмасанжа,
дугур хорло
|
not described in FPM; could be aboveground parts
|
Paeonia anomala L.
|
цаган цэнэ, цэнэ,
мандарвъ цэцэг
|
roots, follicle
|
Paeonia lactiflora Pall.
|
цаган цэнэ, цэнэ,
мандарвъ цэцэг
|
roots, follicle
|
Potentilla fruticosa L.
|
шуур боролъцзган шуур, бурягул, далан халис
|
not described in FPM; could be aboveground parts
|
Rosa acicularis Lindl.
|
нохойн хушу,
улан халахаг
|
not described in FPM; could be leaves
|
Sanguisorba officinalis L.
|
сюдэ убс,суд
|
leaves and roots
|
Plant roots such as Sanguisorba officinalis were reported as a vital food source whose dietary use could be traced back to the end of the 12th century [18]. Clematis hexapetala (stems & leaves), Paeonia lactiflora (Follicle without seed) and Sanguisorba officinalis (roots & stems) were reported as traditional tea substitutes of the Mongols in Inner Mongolia [11]. The Mongols in Arhorchin Banner have been using Clematis hexapetala(stems and leaves), Paeonia lactiflora(follicle, and Sanguisorba officinalis(roots, stems)for viable tea substitutes. However, Potentilla fruticosa and Rosa acicularis were reported with lesser use, and an alternative species of Potentilla chinensis Ser. (aboveground parts) and Rosa davurica Pall. (leaves, flowers, fruits) might have been used as tea substitutes [1,12]. Also, Sanguisorba officinalis L.(roots stems) were reported as preferred tea substitutes by Mongols in Xilingol League. However, they tended not to use Potentilla fruticos, but, instead, an alternative species of Potentilla anserina L. (leaves) [4].
Wild seasonings
The original records of wild seasonings in FPM were translated as follows:
(a) Allium lineare L.: Seasoning in soups and meats when fresh and dry.
(b) Allium mongolicum Regel: Gobi herders especially like to use fresh or dried (crushed) Allium mongolicum as meat seasoning. In this regard, herders prefer Allium mongolicum to Allium polyrhizum.
(c) Allium polyrhizum Turcz. ex Regel: Sometimes, people use it for seasoning food.
(d) Nepeta annua Pall.[Schizonepeta annua (Pall.) Schischk.]: Seeds are used as flavoring for meat.
(e) Polygonum viviparum L.: Cooked as a seasoning for meat.
(f) Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk: The local people use the seeds as seasoning of meat.
(g) Sisymbrium heteromallum C. A. Mey.: In the Gobi Altai region, its seeds are used as pungent condiments in food.
Seasonings from wild source consist of the parts of plants from seeds, rhizomes, tender leaves (possibly), comprising seven species of wild plants, accounting for 20.00% of all edible plant species (Table 6).
Table 6 Ethnobotanical inventory of wild seasonings in FPM
Scientific name
|
Local name
|
Parts used
|
Allium lineare L.
|
гогод
|
not described in FPM; could be tender leaves
|
Allium mongolicum Regel
|
хумулъ
|
not described in FPM; could be tender leaves
|
Allium polyrhizum Turcz. ex Regel
|
тан (таан)
|
not described in FPM; could be tender leaves
|
Nepeta annua Pall.
|
бивилинг, вандуй
|
seeds
|
Polygonum viviparum L.
|
мэхэр
|
rhizomes
|
Saposhnikovia divaricata (Turcz.) Schischk.
|
гонид
|
seeds
|
Sisymbrium heteromallum C.A.Mey.
|
борбот
|
seeds
|
The tender leaves of Allium polyrhizum were consumed as vegetables or inflorescens as seasonings by Mongols in Arhorchin Banner [1]. However, in Xilingol League, Mongols used tender leaves of Allium mongolicum and Allium polyrhizum as vegetables and seasonings [4]. In contrast, Mongols from Ordos plateau tended to use the leaves of Allium mongolicum as vegetables and seasonings, and inflorescens of Allium polyrhizum for seasonings [3]. Ejina Banner were reported to use tender leaves and inflorescens of Allium mongolicum as vegetables, and inflorescens of Allium polyrhizum as seasonings[2].